There is evidence that training programmes present lower rates of female participation,
becoming an obstacle to women’s career advancement and access to managerial positions
worldwide (Powell and Butterfield 1994). Women are also widely excluded from informal
networks and experience difficulties in the establishment of mentoring relationships.
These factors prevent them from reaching top positions, a phenomenon known as ‘the glass
ceiling effect’ (Ragins and Scandura 1994). Moreover, most diversity training
programmes reinforce norms, values and perspectives of the dominant organizational
culture (Tung 1993). Rabobank, a Dutch bank, has employed a relatively higher
percentage of ethnic minorities than other organizations in the community in order to
attract ethnic minority customers. However, employees in Rabobank with immigrant
backgrounds are mostly recruited only for lower positions and promotion for these
employees is very difficulty, if not impossible. Also, ethnic minority employees are not
allowed to express their culture and religions in the bank openly (Subeliani and Tsogas
2005). Furthermore, the context of some diversity training may be different enough from
the ongoing work context so as to make it difficult for trainees to exhibit behaviours
similar to those learned in training (Ford and Fisher 1996).