SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP
The substitutes-for-leadership theory focuses on situational factors that enhance, neutralize, and/or totally substitute for leadership. For example, a group of people engaged in electronic brainstorming using technology, such as a group decision support system, may operate as though there was a participative leader who was leading the group, but in fact, leadership comes from the operating rules for using the system to engage. Kerr & Jermier (1978) proposed the substitutes-for-leadership theory to address some of the romance effects described above. This research stream focuses on a range of situational/organizational and follower characteristics that might influence the leadership dynamic (Howell et al. 2007). Since this theory was originally proposed, a considerable amount of research has been completed to determine whether there are substitutes for leadership with respect to impacts on performance. A number of authors have concluded that evidence is not sufficient to support the main propositions in the theory (Dionne et al. 2002, Keller 2006). For example, Dionne et al. (2002) tested the moderating effects of task variability, organization formulation, organization inflexibility, and lack of control on the relationship between leadership behavior and group effectiveness. However, the authors found little support for the moderating effects proposed by the substitutes-for-leadership theory. This lack of support may be attributable to problems in measuring these substitutes for leadership. Yet, revisions to the scale and its use in subsequent research have not provided any further support for this theory.