Chang, Jula, Chassiakos, and Ioannou (2008) investigate the substitution
between containers of different types and its interchange
cost reduction. Container substitution is defined as fulfilling the requests
of one type of container with another type. In their paper,
street-turn and depot-direct movement are allowed; therefore,
empty containers can directly be transported among customers
without passing through the terminals. They show that with substitution,
port trips can be reduced by 70% and transportation costs
from 4% to 47%.