Alternative on-site methods rely upon miniaturised instrumentation based on microfluidics including portable CE and
microchip capillary electrophoresis, also known as “lab on a chip” (LOC) devices. Advanced microchip designs are capable of handling more than one sample, and can integrate multiple functions such as filtration, concentration and separation. However, most of these methods require difficult and tedious sample preparation, or have limited utility and capability such as detection of only specific single explosive compounds.