There is emerging evidence, although at early stages, of
various detrimental health effects after smoking shisha.
With regard to the cardiovascular system, there is a
signifi cant acute rise in cardiovascular markers, such as
heart rate and blood pressure. The long-term effects on
the cardiovascular system are yet to be established. Shisha
smoking has also been signifi cantly associated with lung
cancer. Various other forms of cancer have also been
documented, but have not reached statistical signifi cance and
require further research. Finally, shisha smoking increases the
risk of infection and has been associated with outbreaks in
the Middle East. Therefore, with the increasing consumption
of shisha in Europe, especially in the UK, more research is
required to tackle this potential public health threat.