Instructional emphasis codes documented the presence of the teacher (the teacher is presenting information), the context of teacher talk questioning (e.g., label, associate), and the instructional focus of each event (i.e., target vocabulary word or comprehension/concept knowledge). Basically, there were three types of teacher talk reflecting a range of cognitive complexity and extending previous research by Dickinson and Smith (1994): (a)label/identify/recall/discriminate, (b) define/explain/describe, and(c) associate/connect/expand/relate. Lower cognitive tasks include labeling and identifying questions, whereas association questions require higher thinking skills.