Instrumentality of schooling. Adaptation of a pre-existing inventory that assesses perceived purposes of schooling developed by Nicholls (1989) was used. In this study, five subscales of the inventory were adapted and renamed to suit to the present study. These subscales are as follows: (1) Wealth (α=.82; 4 items), which measures the extent to which a student perceives that schooling prepares him/her to attain material possessions (‘Schooling prepares us for jobs that will give us money for luxuries’) ; (2) Top Career (α=.81 ; 4 items), which measures the extent to which a student perceives that schooling helps him/her to land a highly regarded job (‘Schooling prepares us to compete with others so we can compete for the top job’); (3) Critical Thinking (α=77; 4 items), which measures the extent to which a student perceives that schooling helps him/her to develop critical thinking skills (‘Schooling helps us think clearly and crtically about what we read and see on TV ); (4) Altruistic Work (α=.77; 4 items), which measures the extent to which a student perceives that schooling prepares him/her to do things that will help society (‘Schooling prepares us for job that will improve the welfare of society’); and (5) Civic Responsiblilty (α=.83; 4 items), which measures the extent to which a student perceives that schooling teachers him/her to fulfil his/her responsibility as a citizen