Evidence-based Management Strategies for Treatment of Chronic Wounds
Frank Werdin, MD,a Mayer Tennenhaus, MD,b Hans-Eberhardt Schaller, MD,a and Hans-Oliver Rennekampff, MDc
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Abstract
The care and management of patients with chronic wounds and their far-reaching effects challenge both the patient and the practitioner. Further complicating this situation is the paucity of evidence-based treatment strategies for chronic wound care. After searching both MEDLINE and Cochrane databases, we reviewed currently available articles concerning chronic wound care. Utilizing this information, we have outlined a review of current, evidence-based concepts as they pertain to the treatment of chronic wounds, focusing on fundamental treatment principles for the management of venous, arterial, diabetic, and pressure ulcers. Individualized treatment options as well as general wound management principles applicable to all varieties of chronic wounds are described. Classification and treatment guidelines as well as the adoption of the TIME acronym facilitate an organized conceptional approach to wound care. In so doing, individual aspects of generalized wound care such as debridement, infection, and moisture control as well as attention to the qualities of the wound edge are comprehensively evaluated, communicated, and addressed. Effective adjuvant agents for the therapy of chronic wounds including nutritional and social support measures are listed, as is a brief review of strategies helpful for preventing recurrence. An appreciation of evidence-based treatment pathways and an understanding of the pathophysiology of chronic wounds are important elements in the management of patients with chronic wounds. To achieve effective and long-lasting results, a multidisciplinary approach to patient care, focused on the education and coordination of patient, family as well as medical and support staff can prove invaluable.
The treatment and care of chronic wounds may be an unglamorous aspect of medical practice, but for both the patient and the society, the resulting morbidity and cost are considerable. Indeed much of the medical establishment, whether through lack of confidence, training, interest, or remunerative potential, continues to perceive this to be under the province of someone else.
With the population advancing in age, increasing in weight and with the resultant comorbidities of diabetes and venous insufficiency, an increase in the number of patients with chronic wounds has been reported.1–3 It has been estimated that approximately 1% of the population will develop leg ulceration in the course of their lifetime. In the United States alone, chronic wounds affect 3 million to 6 million patients and treating these wounds costs an estimated $5 billion to $10 billion each year. Of particular concern, we and others have noted an increase in the number of patients who have been insufficiently treated for their chronic wounds over protracted courses.2 We believe that established treatment pathways for chronic wounds can prove highly relevant in daily practice and as a result we have outlined current concepts concerning the treatment of chronic wounds, focusing on fundamental treatment principles for the management of venous, arterial, diabetic, and pressure ulcers.
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DEFINITION AND PATHOLOGY
Chronic wounds are defined as wounds, which have failed to proceed through an orderly and timely reparative process to produce anatomic and functional integrity over a period of 3 months.4 All wound types have the potential to become chronic and, as such, chronic wounds are traditionally divided etiologically. Identifying and treating the underlying aetiology of a chronic wound such as venous insufficiency, arterial perfusion, diabetes, or unrelieved pressure as well as systemic factors such as nutritional status, immunosuppression, and infection that may contribute to poor wound healing are key to successful wound treatment.4 General treatment principles for the management of chronic wounds are demonstrated in Figure Figure1.1. The most commonly encountered chronic wound is the lower extremity ulcer; these are generally vascular or diabetic in nature and account for up to 98% of all lower extremity wounds.5
Figure 1
Figure 1
A management strategy for treatment of chronic wounds.
Chronic wounds are often identified by the presence of a raised, hyperproliferative, yet nonadvancing wound margin. Fibroblasts derived from the wound bed of chronic wounds of various etiologies represent a senescent, premature, or differentiated phenotype, which respond inefficiently to normal stimulatory messages.4,6,7 The local wound environment, rich in inflammatory products, and proinflammatory cytokines manifest an imbalanced enzymatic milieu consisting of an excess of matrix metalloproteases and a reduction in their inhibitors resulting in the destruction of the extra cellular matrix.6 The resultant profound inflammatory state is thought to be a significant factor influencing and delaying healing. Chronic inflammation, a hallmark of the nonhealing wound, may ultimately predispose these wound sites to potential malignant change. A detailed understanding of the mechanisms controlling the inflammatory response, tissue repair, and directed healing outcome is necessary for effective therapy of pathological tissue repair.
Correctly identifying the etiology of a chronic wound as well as the local and systemic factors that may be contributing to poor wound healing is key to successful wound treatment.4–6 In general, local tissue hypoxia with repetitive ischemia-reperfusion injury is considered a common pathogenesis in chronic wound development.6
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DIABETIC ULCER
Diabetic wounds and their pattern of chronicity appear to be multifactorial in nature. Once thought to be predominantly a disease of small vessels, large vessel contribution is increasingly recognized.8 Neuropathic diabetic ulcers require therapeutic regimens directed at several causative elements including the neuropathy, blood sugar control, revascularization as well as prevention strategies.4 The diagnosis of a diabetic neuropathy remains particularly challenging and is confirmed by history, clinical examination, and Semmes-Weinstein filament testing.9 Improving vascular flow, medical therapy for neuropathy, and surgical decompressions have all shown to contribute to effective management.4,8 Judicious diabetic control is critical and as with all chronic wounds, prevention, education, and examination are of paramount importance.8 All patients with pressure-induced, neuropathic diabetic foot wounds should receive an orthopedic evaluation for maximal pressure off-loading.4–8,10 Methods of offloading include crutches, walkers, wheelchairs, and a variety of protective and stabilizing footwear. Achilles tendon lengthening procedures, for example, have been shown to improve the rate of healing of neuropathic forefoot plantar ulceration by improving kinematics and reducing focal pressure effects.4 In addition, the transplantation of healthy living skin equivalents, cells that assist in ulcer healing by stimulating the release of growth factors and cytokines, has shown varying degrees of benefit in healing diabetic ulcers after judicious wound bed preparation.4
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VASCULAR ULCER
All patients with lower extremity ulcers should be assessed for arterial disease. Vascular ulcers, despite their characteristic location and appearance, merit a clinical vascular examination to identify and characterize the ulcer, distinguishing arterial from venous contributions.4,11 A relevant history and accurate clinical examination including assessment of cutaneous changes, dependent rubor, capillary refill, and claudication should be performed. The next diagnostic steps would generally be an assessment of the ABI (ankle/brachial index) as well as transcutaneous oximetry. The screening value for arterial disease is defined by a resting ABI ≤ 0.9. Transcutaneous oxygen tension (TcPo2) is thought to be a more effective marker of disease than Doppler assessment or ABI. A value less than 40 mm Hg is associated with impaired healing.4,11 TcPo2 levels are often helpful in predicting healing after amputation as well as assessing the success of vascular intervention. If an otherwise healthy patient presents with strong palpable dorsalis pedis and posterior tibialis pulses, no immediate further referral is generally required. A suspicion of arterial disease in the context of a patient with lower extremity ulcer should prompt referral to a vascular specialist (eg, vascular surgeon, angiologist).4,11
In cases of arterial ulcers, restoration of blood flow by revascularization is the intervention that will most likely lead to healing. Prior to surgery, an anatomic road map should be obtained by angiogram, duplex angiography, magnetic resonance angiography, computed tomography angiography, or contrast tomography angiography. The success of vascular intervention is confirmed by manifest pulses in the foot, improved ABI, or improved wound healing. In some patients, primary amputation must be considered, while in others limb preservation may be of utmost importance. The role of amputation in the management of complex extremity wounds needs to be considered in a complex risk-benefit analysis and carefully discussed with the patient.4,11
In cases of venous ulceration, gross arterial disease should be ruled out as described above and the specific venous etiology of the ulcer confirmed by color duplex scan.4 It is important to identify and distinguish deep and superficial system patency and competency. Venous ulcer healing rates improve when adequate compression therapy–specifically a class 3 high-compression system–is consistently applied. It is important to note, however, that compression therapy is contraindicated