3. Results
3.1. Adaptive measures adopted in China
The available countermeasures for coastal erosion in China are: (1) hard engineering, using seawalls, groynes, breakwaters, reclamation and other hard engineered structures; (2) soft engineering, including beach nourishment, setback lines, mangrove afforestation, coral reef transplant, Spartina alterniflora planting, natural reserves, and similar else soft engineered structures; and (3) combined measures, such as beach nourishment þ seawall/groynes/ breakwaters or beach nourishment þ artificial reefs, and so on. Hard engineered structures such as seawalls, groynes and breakwaters are built to reduce coastal beach erosion and to maintain a minimum beach width for recreation in the eleven Chinese coast regions. China has a seawall coastline of 13 830 km that is now two thirds of the mainland coastline and is the most popular countermeasure along the Chinese coast. However, groynes and breakwaters are no remedy for dune and soft cliff erosion during conditions of relatively high surge level; they more often appear along the low-surge muddy coast or are used as aided structures, a common way to trap sediment in a certain coastal cell to maintain nourished beach width. This form of reclamation has already produced 12 000 km2 new land in coastal areas since 1940's, and is more welcomed in the creation of artificial islands in recent years (see Table 2).
3. Results 3.1. Adaptive measures adopted in China The available countermeasures for coastal erosion in China are: (1) hard engineering, using seawalls, groynes, breakwaters, reclamation and other hard engineered structures; (2) soft engineering, including beach nourishment, setback lines, mangrove afforestation, coral reef transplant, Spartina alterniflora planting, natural reserves, and similar else soft engineered structures; and (3) combined measures, such as beach nourishment þ seawall/groynes/ breakwaters or beach nourishment þ artificial reefs, and so on. Hard engineered structures such as seawalls, groynes and breakwaters are built to reduce coastal beach erosion and to maintain a minimum beach width for recreation in the eleven Chinese coast regions. China has a seawall coastline of 13 830 km that is now two thirds of the mainland coastline and is the most popular countermeasure along the Chinese coast. However, groynes and breakwaters are no remedy for dune and soft cliff erosion during conditions of relatively high surge level; they more often appear along the low-surge muddy coast or are used as aided structures, a common way to trap sediment in a certain coastal cell to maintain nourished beach width. This form of reclamation has already produced 12 000 km2 new land in coastal areas since 1940's, and is more welcomed in the creation of artificial islands in recent years (see Table 2).
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