The second reason is indigenous to demo- cratic theory, which has tended to follow Jean- Jacques Rousseau in assuming that represen- tative democracy is, at best, an instrumental substitute for stronger forms of democracy (Pateman 1976, Barber 1984). Until recently, participatory and deliberative democrats paid little attention to political representation, leaving the topic to neo-Schumpeterian theorists who viewed democracy as primarily about the selection and organization of political elites (Sartori 1987, Manin 1997; cf. Kateb 1992). This consensus division of labor began to unravel about 15 years ago at the hands of those interested in broad patterns of inclusions and exclusions in political representation, particularly of minorities and women (Phillips 1995, 1998; Williams 1998;