manpower scarce, local chieftains willingly received immigrants who needed their
protection. As a result, some areas even experienced increases of populations. Although
the Dutch banned the movements of people, and punished both those who moved their
domiciles and regents who received immigrants3, these measures could not stop in- and
out-flows of people such that the Dutch repeatedly issued the same orders year after year
(Tanaka 1969: 209). Thus, any state-builders with the goal of centralization had to fight a
constant uphill battle against such distinctive characters of social organization.