Review Article
ทบทวนบทความผลกระทบของการเผชิญปัญหาจากการปรับอารมณ์ได้รับบาดเจ็บไขสันหลังThe impact of coping on emotional adjustment to spinal cord injury
(SCI): (SCI): review of the literature and application of a stress appraisal and
การทบทวนวรรณกรรมและการประยุกต์ใช้การประเมินความเครียดและการกำหนดรับมือcoping formulation
LR กัลวิน * 1 และ HPD Godfrey1 LR Galvin*,1 and HPD Godfrey1
1Psychology กรมมหาวิทยาลัยโอทาโกเดอนี, 1Psychology Department, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
นิวซีแลนด์วัตถุประสงค์: Objectives: This article reviews literature examining the psychological adjustment to Spinal
บทความวรรณกรรมคิดเห็นนี้การตรวจสอบการปรับตัวทางจิตวิทยาเพื่อกระดูกสันหลังบาดเจ็บโค้ด(SCI) และแสดงให้เห็นถึงการบังคับใช้ในการประเมินความเครียดและการเผชิญปัญหาแบบจำลองCord Injury (SCI) and illustrates the applicability of a Stress Appraisal and Coping model
(SAC) สำหรับการฟื้นฟูสมรรถภาพของประชากรกลุ่มนี้. (SAC) for rehabilitation of this population.
วิธีการ: บทความเกี่ยวกับการปรับตัวทางจิตวิทยาเพื่อ SCI จากที่ก่อนหน้านี้สามทศวรรษที่ผ่านมามี รับการตรวจสอบและวิเคราะห์ Method: Articles concerning psychological adjustment to SCI from the previous three
decades have been reviewed and critiqued. When possible the articles have been discussed in a
SAC framework.
Results: The literature indicates that psychological adjustment to SCI is largely predictable
from psychological variables including coping, appraisal and psychosocial resources. Recent
literature has suggested psychological intervention can promote positive psychological
adjustment following SCI for those individuals at risk of developing clinical levels of
depression.
Conclusion: The SAC model provides a comprehensive formulation to incorporate the
heterogeneity of populations with SCI. Suggestions for future research include developing
assessment and treatment regimes speci®cally tailored to the strengths and weaknesses of an
individual as highlighted in the model.
Spinal Cord (2001) 39, 615 ± 627
Keywords: stress; appraisal; coping; spinal cord injury
Introduction
Recovery from a spinal cord injury (SCI) requires
signi®cant ongoing psychological adjustment. For
example, 30% to 40% of individuals with a SCI
develop a depressive disorder1 ± 4 and between 20% and
25% experience an anxiety disorder.3,4 Longitudinal
studies of adjustment have found that psychological
distress does not decrease signi®cantly over time. An
estimated 30% of individuals still experience depression
or anxiety at 2 years after injury.5 Suicide rates are two
to six times higher in populations with SCI than in
community populations.6 In addition to clinical
depression and anxiety, SCI has been shown to have
a signi®cant impact on a variety of other areas of
psychological functioning. For example, the prevalence
of substance abuse in populations with SCI's is twice
as high as that of community populations (46% vs
25%).7 However, diculty exists in stating high rates
of abuse in this population are related to the injury
when rates of misuse in this population have been
found to be high before injury.7 Furthermore, divorce
rates in marriages are higher for those with a SCI than
the general population.8 Finally, ®nancial and occupa-
tional opportunities are restricted for this population.9
An important task in rehabilitation is the promo-
tion of successful adjustment of both the individual
with SCI and his or her signi®cant others. Adaptation
to SCI is a complex process and variability in
emotional adjustment to injury has characterised the
literature in this area. For those working with injured
individuals and their families, an increased under-
standing of the psychosocial and emotional conse-
quences of SCI could be facilitated by a clearly
articulated model of the in¯uences on psychological
adjustment following injury. This article describes a
stress appraisal coping formulation of emotional
adjustment to SCI. This model proposes general rules
underlying adaptation to stressful life events and also
recognises conditions that re¯ect dierences in in-
dividuals and their environments. By including envir-
*Correspondence: L Galvin, Psychology Department, University of
Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
Spinal Cord (2001) 39, 615 ± 627
ã 2001 International Medical Society of Paraplegia All rights reserved 1362 ± 4393/01 $15.00
www.nature.com/sc
onmental and individual speci®c variables, the model
is able to account for the large individual dierences in
psychological outcome despite seemingly similar dis-
abilities.
Models of adaptation
Spinal cord injury is associated with extensive social,
occupational, and psychological challenges. Previously
these adaptations have been viewed in a stage theory
framework.10,11 Stage theories postulate that time since
injury is a crucial factor in adaptation and that the
goal of rehabilitation is to move an individual through
a series of predetermined stages towards acceptance of
disability.12 These presumptions have been seriously
challenged in the past two decades.13 A lack of
empirical evidence for stage model theories, signi®cant
variability in rehabilitation outcomes, and an increased
awareness of the heterogeneity of this population has
promoted a diering emphasis for rehabilitation
research. This contemporary emphasis considers reha-
bilitation to be a multi-factorial process and places
emphasis on the roles that coping and appraisal play in
adjustment.
Stress appraisal and coping
The stress appraisal and coping model developed by
Lazarus and Folkman14 was a starting point for much
of the more recent research into SCI rehabilitation.
Research into other illnesses and injury has indicated
that a coping and appraisal framework is suitable for
explaining the dynamic process of rehabilitation.15 The
Stress Appraisal and Coping Model (SAC) involves a
process formulation for explaining an individual's
ability to cope with, and adjust to, life stress.
Stressors
Lazarus and Folkman14 de®ne psychological stress as
`a particular relationship between the person and the
environment that is appraised by the person as taxing
or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his
or her well-being' (p 19). Following SCI, a variety of
factors can be considered to be stressors. An
individual may be unable to perform many tasks as
competently as he or she could before the injury. The
demands of work, family, social relationships and
physical changes may now put strain on an
individual's competency.
Stress response
Stress responses concern an individual's reactions to
demands placed on him or her. Typical examples of
stress responses to SCI include depression, anxiety, and
distress about physical symptoms. The manifestations
of these signs of personal distress vary from individual
to individual and may occur at varying times since
injury.
Mediators
Mediators in the SAC model in¯uence the magnitude
of an individual's emotional reaction by modifying or
mediating the impact of stressors. Mediators include
the individual's appraisal of the level of demand the
stressors place on him or her, the perceived compe-
tency to meet these demands through the application of
available coping skills, and the resources that they can
utilise.
In the past two decades research has provided
encouraging evidence for the applicability of the SAC
model for understanding emotional adjustment to
SCI.16,17 The model incorporates three classes of
variables impacting on adjustment, and is described
below.
Role of appraisal
SAC theory proposes two types of appraisal processes:
primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary
appraisal is not an objective analysis of the stressors
and resources involved in a situation. Rather, it is an
inference about a situation determined by many factors
such as an individual's psychological characteristics,
past experience with stressful situations and expecta-
tions for the future. Primary appraisal involves
scanning the environment for potential harm. Environ-
mental stimuli can be perceived as one of three kinds:
irrelevant, benign ± positive and stressful.14 Stress
appraisals include harm, loss and threat to an
individual and are the most common appraisals in
those sustaining a SCI. Several determinants of threat
have been outlined by Lazarus and Folkman.14 The
strength of commitments being endangered and the
individual's belief in his of her ability to control the
situation, contribute to appraisals of threat and have
been examined in SCI populations.
Secondary appraisal concerns a further process
implemented to decide what could be done to lessen
the impact of a stressful situation. Secondary appraisal
is more than a process of listing possible options to
deal with stress. It is a complex evaluative activity that
takes into account available coping resources, the
likelihood of these resources being sucient in each
situation and the likelihood that one can use these
resources.14
To date, research investigating possible relationships
between appraisal and emotional adjustment in SCI
individuals has been contradictory. In one of the
earliest attempts to relate primary appraisal to
adaptation, Bulman and Wortman18 questioned SCI
individuals' concerning appraisal of blame for the
injury. Participants assigned blame to four factors,
self, other, environment, and chance. Results of this
pioneering research indicated that those who appraised
the situation as being avoidable and thus able to be
controlled, were deemed to have better emotional
adjustment, than those individuals who blamed
external factors for their disability. The authors stated
that participants, making a primary appraisal of
Stress appraisal and coping formulation
LR Galvin and PD Godfrey
616
Spinal Cord
control, had better emotional adjustment because of
the belief that they had the resources and abilities to
change their environment. The results of this study are
somewhat discredited by the fact that social workers
and nurses rated individuals' emotional adjustment. A
common belief at this time was that rehabilitation
involved universal stages. This belief held signi®cant
allure for professionals as it contributed to the
development of treatment plans based on anticipated
reactions. As such, sta may have been subject to a
con®rmational bias and were hypervigilent to informa-
tion supporting their erroneous beliefs. A further
limitation of this study is the limited
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