During the nineteenth century many capital cities and other large towns in Europe were
subject to vast improvement and expansion programmes, which still affect their physical
appearance today. It was during this period that many features were created—such as the
avenues and boulevards in Paris or the Ringstraße in Vienna—which now seem
quintessential characteristics of the cities in question.
The aim of this study is to describe and compare planning in a number of capital cities,
and in particular to address the following questions.
• When and why did planning begin, and what problems was it meant to solve?
• Who developed the projects, and how, and who made the decisions?
• What urban ideas are expressed in the projects?
• What were the legal consequences of the plans, and how did they actually affect
subsequent urban development in the individual cities?
• What similarities or differences can be identified between the various schemes?
• How do these projects compare with earlier planning, and how did they affect the
subsequent development of urban planning in general?