abstract
This paper investigates how personal privacy behavior and confidence differ by gender, focusing on the
dimensions of online privacy data protection and release. A hierarchical regression analysis of cross-sectional
survey of a national sample (n = 419) revealed that men and women differed on the level of privacy
protection; however, gender had no direct effect on the extent to which data release was exercised.
Additionally, gender had a positive association with confidence in privacy protection, but not in the
dimension of release. Our study suggests that the gender may affect subjective well-being of online privacy
and potentially exacerbate the disparity rooted in socialization of gender. Implications of the findings
are discussed in light of Internet access, skill and effort required for building and maintaining
privacy, and the important role played by gender in indicating the need for gender-sensitive policy
awareness.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Theorists have hailed the Internet as a tool of empowerment
that reduces the inequality in various domains of civic life
(Anderson, 2007; Negroponte, 1996). Skillful uses of the Internet
lead to a narrowing gap between the ‘‘haves’’ and the ‘‘have-nots’’.
However, scholars (Boyd & Hargittai, 2010; DiMaggio, Hargittai,
Neuman, & Robinson, 2001; Hargittai & Shafer, 2006) have also
raised a concern that the digitalization of personal data may bring
about a persistent gender gap. In fact, many scholars (Park,
Campbell, & Kwak, 2012) have worried whether the Internet can
fully function as an equalizer in the domain of information privacy.
The less skillful users can be inadvertently excluded from the bene-
fit of Internet as they cannot efficiently avoid data pitfalls, whereas
those who are aware of a wide range of privacy issues may effectively
manage personal data. Importantly, the gender difference
in privacy skills will be an important factor that determines how
benefits of Internet will differ by diverse social groups (Hargittai,
2002). In other words, gender may be a dividing line that might
hinder the equal engagement in the full domain of Internet.
Our study is motivated to address this issue by investigating
whether Internet user behavior, in the privacy data protection
and release, differs by gender. Whether digitally competent citizenship
in online privacy systematically leaves out female users
is a critical question. That is, gender differences in managing privacy—especially,
when women are less skillful in effectively handling
personal data—can reinforce socially-constructed gender
bias by replicating rather than eradicating societal disparity. We
define privacy as one’s ability to control the release of personally
identifiable data in the context of institutional practices. Despite
the concern about the information skill disparity in the digital data
environment, however, little has been known about the gender difference
within the domain of institutional privacy protection. Time
is ripe for elaborating the presence or absence of the gender gap via
systematic inquiries.
2. Theorization
2.1. Gendered privacy and technology
The notion that the personal privacy in the Internet can be ‘gendered’
suggests many propositions. For one, privacy may mean a
different functioning norm to men and women because females
are more sensitive in establishing private boundaries. Other proposition
may be put forth to the extent to which women have been
socialized differently through established social institutions such
as schooling to reinforce the disparity embedded in social structure
(Gramsci, 1982). This context of socialization (DiMaggio et al.,
2001; Howard & Jones, 2004) is particularly useful in understanding
why there may exist a privacy gender gap. In other words, men
and women beyond their biological differences tend to grow up in
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.011
0747-5632/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
⇑ Address: 13306 Burkitts Road, Fairfax, VA 22033, USA. Tel.: +1 703 657 2181.
E-mail address: yongjinp@hotmail.com
Computers in Human Behavior 50 (2015) 252–258
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
different social and institutional environments that tend to incubate
different skill sets.
A dominant concern for scholars examining Internet inequality
in most of the earlier studies has been on the potential gender disparity
in Internet access (Ono & Zavodny, 2003). At least in the U.S.,
however, gender inequalities in online access diminished recently.
Yet this does not mean equality in user competence and skill
(Hargittai, 2002; van Deursen & van Dijk, 2014). Foremost, a simple
binary distinction between the use of the medium and the non-use
do not consider factors beyond connectivity. Offline gender
inequalities also persist in the U.S. across income, education, and
employment status. Important differences, especially in terms of
data protection and release, may lie in how attitudes to the
Internet and the sophistication of skill differ by gender, taking into
account socializing factors that may be relevant for understanding
how different groups are equipped to manage personal privacy
(Hargittai & Shafer, 2006; Hargittai & Litt, 2013).
In this vein, Internet privacy may make gender disparity salient.
On the one hand, data management skill in mediated environments
can potentially favor male users who may be more skillful
in various privacy tasks related to Internet technicalities (i.e., technical
behaviors in data protection). On the other hand, the intrinsic
privacy concern regarding underlying data exposure may – or may
not – render women more likely to exercise privacy skills that are
more socially-pertinent to a private–public boundary setup (i.e.,
social behaviors in data protection). Those with lower skills in their
engagement with Internet privacy will be trapped in a cycle of disparity
and may not be in shape to succeed online that requires
increasing privacy skill levels.
2.1.1. Privacy in the two dimensions
Goffman (1965) defined privacy as a central component of
everyday interaction in human lives. His underlying concern was
the individual ability to be able to reveal self and selves selectively.
In this vein, however, it is important to note that there are the
mixed empirical findings with regards to gender difference. A
study by Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer (2005) found that privacy
skill may not be at par between men and women But there is also
evidence that suggests the gender difference may not be particularly
salient in highly interactive social network sites – such as
Facebook (e.g., Boyd & Hargittai, 2010) or Twitter (e.g.,
Humphreys, 2011) – because female users are more inclined to privacy
control in a confined and close interpersonal relationship. As
some of studies reported contradictory findings, we do not have
conclusive evidence yet with regards to the gender difference in
terms of (1) release and (2) protective dimension of Internet privacy
behavior and confidence.
In the institutional context of personal data collection and
surveillance, there has been a conspicuous absence of the empirical
work investigating the gender difference in perceived privacy con-
fidence and behavior. Nevertheless, we find a fundamental premise
of this work in the statement made by Hargittai and Shafer (2006).
They said, ‘‘The extent to which human capital is fostered,
employed, and recognized is profoundly social and has often been
examined along the gender lines’’ (p.434). This is an important
insight that addresses how socialization process in education,
organizations, or occupational settings often biases against women
and affects the development of competence among women. As the
socialization of gender guides men and women into different paths
of choices and values, they may make different decisions in information
environments (Lally, 2002). The early studies (e.g., Fisher,
1994), which examined the development of telephone use in the
U.S., also documented the subtle social construction of gender by
which to harness different roles in the use of new technology.
One line of the literature focuses on how much individuals
are concerned about privacy, with the gender as one of the
contributing factors to attitud
บทคัดย่อลักษณะการทำงานความเป็นส่วนตัวส่วนบุคคลวิธีการตรวจสอบเอกสารนี้ และความเชื่อมั่นแตกต่างกัน โดยเพศ เน้นการมิติของการป้องกันข้อมูลส่วนตัวออนไลน์และปล่อย การวิเคราะห์การถดถอยแบบลำดับชั้นของเหลวการสำรวจตัวอย่างแห่งชาติ (n = 419) เปิดเผยว่า ผู้ชายและผู้หญิงแตกต่างกับระดับของความเป็นส่วนตัวป้องกัน อย่างไรก็ตาม เพศมีผลต่อขอบเขตที่ใช้นำข้อมูลที่ไม่ตรงนอกจากนี้ เพศมีความสัมพันธ์เป็นบวกกับความเชื่อมั่น ในการป้องกันความเป็นส่วนตัว แต่ไม่ใช่ในการขนาดของรุ่น เราแนะนำว่า เพศอาจส่งผลกระทบต่อตามอัตวิสัยที่ความเป็นส่วนตัวออนไลน์และอาจทำให้รุนแรง disparity ในการขัดเกลาทางสังคมของเพศ ผลกระทบของผลการศึกษากล่าวถึงเมื่อเข้าอินเทอร์เน็ต ทักษะ และความพยายามที่จำเป็นสำหรับการสร้าง และรักษาส่วนบุคคล และสำคัญบทบาทเพศในการระบุเพศสำคัญนโยบายจำเป็นต้องรับรู้ 2015 Elsevier จำกัด สงวนลิขสิทธิ์ทั้งหมด1. บทนำTheorists มีคำยกย่องอินเทอร์เน็ตเป็นเครื่องมือของอำนาจที่ช่วยลดความไม่เท่าเทียมกันในโดเมนต่าง ๆ ของชีวิตพลเมือง(แอนเดอร์สัน 2007 เนโกรพอนตี 1996) ใช้ฝีมือของอินเทอร์เน็ตทำให้ช่องว่าง narrowing ระหว่าง '' haves'' และ '' have-nots''อย่างไรก็ตาม นักวิชาการ (Boyd & Hargittai, 2010 DiMaggio, HargittaiNeuman, & โรบินสัน 2001 Hargittai และ Shafer, 2006) นอกจากนี้ยังมียกความกังวลว่าอาจนำดิจิทัลของข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลเกี่ยวกับเพศแบบช่องว่าง ในความเป็นจริง นักวิชาการจำนวนมาก (พาร์คCampbell, & Kwak, 2012) มีห่วงว่าอินเทอร์เน็ตสามารถทั้งหมดทำหน้าที่เป็นตัวปรับแต่งเสียงที่อยู่ในโดเมนของข้อมูลความเป็นส่วนตัวผู้ใช้ฝีมือน้อยสามารถตั้งใจออกจาก bene-พอดีของอินเทอร์เน็ตพวกเขาไม่สามารถหลีกเลี่ยงข้อผิดพลาดของข้อมูล ประสิทธิภาพในขณะที่ผู้ที่ตระหนักถึงความหลากหลายของประเด็นความเป็นส่วนตัวอาจมีประสิทธิภาพจัดการข้อมูลส่วนบุคคล สำคัญ เพศความแตกต่างในความเป็นส่วนตัว ทักษะจะเป็นปัจจัยสำคัญที่กำหนดว่าประโยชน์ของอินเตอร์เน็ตจะแตกต่างกันตามกลุ่มสังคมหลากหลาย (Hargittai2002) ได้กล่าว เพศอาจมีเส้นแบ่งที่อาจขัดขวางหมั้นเท่าในโดเมนทั้งหมดของอินเทอร์เน็ตเรามีแรงจูงใจปัญหานี้ โดยการตรวจสอบว่าพฤติกรรมผู้ใช้อินเทอร์เน็ต ในการคุ้มครองข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลและปล่อย แตกต่างตามเพศ ว่าสัญชาติมีอำนาจเซ็นในความเป็นส่วนตัวออนไลน์ระบบละเว้นผู้หญิงเป็นคำถามสำคัญ เพศความแตกต่างในการจัดการข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลคือ โดยเฉพาะเมื่อผู้หญิงมีน้อยความชำนาญในการจัดการอย่างมีประสิทธิภาพข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลซึ่งสามารถเสริมสร้างสังคมเพศอคติ โดยจำลองแทน disparity eradicating นิยม เรากำหนดความเป็นส่วนตัวเป็นหนึ่งของความสามารถในการควบคุมการปล่อยตัวข้อมูลส่วนบุคคลในบริบทของสถาบันปฏิบัติการ แม้มีกังวลเกี่ยวกับ disparity ทักษะข้อมูลในข้อมูลดิจิตอลenvironment, however, little has been known about the gender differencewithin the domain of institutional privacy protection. Timeis ripe for elaborating the presence or absence of the gender gap viasystematic inquiries.2. Theorization2.1. Gendered privacy and technologyThe notion that the personal privacy in the Internet can be ‘gendered’suggests many propositions. For one, privacy may mean adifferent functioning norm to men and women because femalesare more sensitive in establishing private boundaries. Other propositionmay be put forth to the extent to which women have beensocialized differently through established social institutions suchas schooling to reinforce the disparity embedded in social structure(Gramsci, 1982). This context of socialization (DiMaggio et al.,2001; Howard & Jones, 2004) is particularly useful in understandingwhy there may exist a privacy gender gap. In other words, menand women beyond their biological differences tend to grow up inhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.0110747-5632/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.⇑ Address: 13306 Burkitts Road, Fairfax, VA 22033, USA. Tel.: +1 703 657 2181.E-mail address: yongjinp@hotmail.comComputers in Human Behavior 50 (2015) 252–258Contents lists available at ScienceDirectComputers in Human Behaviorjournal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbehdifferent social and institutional environments that tend to incubatedifferent skill sets.A dominant concern for scholars examining Internet inequalityin most of the earlier studies has been on the potential gender disparityin Internet access (Ono & Zavodny, 2003). At least in the U.S.,however, gender inequalities in online access diminished recently.Yet this does not mean equality in user competence and skill(Hargittai, 2002; van Deursen & van Dijk, 2014). Foremost, a simplebinary distinction between the use of the medium and the non-usedo not consider factors beyond connectivity. Offline genderinequalities also persist in the U.S. across income, education, andemployment status. Important differences, especially in terms ofdata protection and release, may lie in how attitudes to theInternet and the sophistication of skill differ by gender, taking intoaccount socializing factors that may be relevant for understandinghow different groups are equipped to manage personal privacy(Hargittai & Shafer, 2006; Hargittai & Litt, 2013).In this vein, Internet privacy may make gender disparity salient.On the one hand, data management skill in mediated environmentscan potentially favor male users who may be more skillfulin various privacy tasks related to Internet technicalities (i.e., technicalbehaviors in data protection). On the other hand, the intrinsicprivacy concern regarding underlying data exposure may – or maynot – render women more likely to exercise privacy skills that aremore socially-pertinent to a private–public boundary setup (i.e.,
social behaviors in data protection). Those with lower skills in their
engagement with Internet privacy will be trapped in a cycle of disparity
and may not be in shape to succeed online that requires
increasing privacy skill levels.
2.1.1. Privacy in the two dimensions
Goffman (1965) defined privacy as a central component of
everyday interaction in human lives. His underlying concern was
the individual ability to be able to reveal self and selves selectively.
In this vein, however, it is important to note that there are the
mixed empirical findings with regards to gender difference. A
study by Turow, Feldman, and Meltzer (2005) found that privacy
skill may not be at par between men and women But there is also
evidence that suggests the gender difference may not be particularly
salient in highly interactive social network sites – such as
Facebook (e.g., Boyd & Hargittai, 2010) or Twitter (e.g.,
Humphreys, 2011) – because female users are more inclined to privacy
control in a confined and close interpersonal relationship. As
some of studies reported contradictory findings, we do not have
conclusive evidence yet with regards to the gender difference in
terms of (1) release and (2) protective dimension of Internet privacy
behavior and confidence.
In the institutional context of personal data collection and
surveillance, there has been a conspicuous absence of the empirical
work investigating the gender difference in perceived privacy con-
fidence and behavior. Nevertheless, we find a fundamental premise
of this work in the statement made by Hargittai and Shafer (2006).
They said, ‘‘The extent to which human capital is fostered,
employed, and recognized is profoundly social and has often been
examined along the gender lines’’ (p.434). This is an important
insight that addresses how socialization process in education,
organizations, or occupational settings often biases against women
and affects the development of competence among women. As the
socialization of gender guides men and women into different paths
of choices and values, they may make different decisions in information
environments (Lally, 2002). The early studies (e.g., Fisher,
1994), which examined the development of telephone use in the
U.S., also documented the subtle social construction of gender by
which to harness different roles in the use of new technology.
One line of the literature focuses on how much individuals
are concerned about privacy, with the gender as one of the
contributing factors to attitud
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