There is anecdotal evidence showing diversity training and management development are
receiving considerable attention from organizational management. According to Maxwell
et al. (2001), people in the UK public sector normally regard diversity management as
giving a fair chance to get ahead for everyone. Horwitz et al. (1996) reported that before
1979 the monopolization of skilled labour by white trade unions effectively denied access
to apprenticeship training and skilled and managerial positions for South African black
employees. Since the late 1970s, black managers as a proportion of all managers have
increased as a result of implementing Affirmative Action programs. Many South African
organizations have instituted multicultural value sharing workshops. By 1995, only 7.3%
of the managers in the Breakwater Monitor sample involving 137 leading South African
organizations and 837,331 employees were black, coloured or Asian. However, there has
been a considerable growth of black, coloured, Asian and female mangers in South Africa
since then. Past studies, such as Cunha and Marques (1995), showed that nations with a
high femininity culture, such as Portugal and the Scandinavian countries, have higher
percentages of female managers. In Portuguese public administration the percentage of
female managers is twice that of Europe. J. C. Penney set a goal of 46% representation
of women on its board of directors.