Cultural Policy and European Integration in Anthropological Perspective1
Culture has an important intrinsic value to all people in Europe, is an essential element of European integration and contributes to the affirmation and vitality of the European model of society and to the Community's influence on the international scene.
European Parliament 2000, 1
Although its goal is to develop a feeling of belonging to a shared culture, the EU is also keen to preserve the specific aspects of Europe's many cultures, e.g. minority languages.
CEC 2002, 5
As the two quotes cited above indicate, the theme of Europe's "culture" (or "cultures") has become an issue of growing concern for the European Union (EU). Yet there is something curiously contradictory in the way the concept of culture is conceived and deployed in EU official discourses, a confusion that is perhaps symptomatic of a more profound philosophical ambiguity over the status and definition of the Union and its people(s). In short, is the European Union (or, to use its earlier incarnation, the European Community), one people or many? And what is, or should be, the relationship between peoplehood and culture in the EU's emerging system of supranational governance? Whereas the European Parliament's statement speaks of "the European model of society" and the "intrinsic value of culture" to "all people in Europe," a statement that belies a consensual idea of culture and society and conspicuously avoids the use of plural nouns, the European Commission's statement reminds us of the "many cultures" that the EU is "keen to preserve" and which constitute Europe's essential cultural unity. This contrast between Europe conceived as a unified and singular cultural entity, and Europe conceived as a space of diversity, an amalgamation of many cultures, and by implication, of many peoples and interests, also underlies some of the key political divisions in the way European integration is imagined. As I shall argue below, none of the EU's stock metaphors of "unity in diversity," "cultural mosaics," or "family of cultures" adequately address this fundamental contradiction between the foundational idea of Europe as an "ever-closer union among the peoples of Europe," understood as a plurality, and the idea of integration as a process leading to a "European people."
If the quotes above are indicative of an increasing official emphasis on the role of "culture" in the construction of the new Europe, they also epitomise the important link between policy, identity-construction, and power or, to use terminology more typical of EU parlance, between "social cohesion," "European construction" and "governance." The drawing together of these themes around the notion of culture is of recent origin. According to modern myth, it was Jean Monnet, the celebrated French statesman and founding father of the European Communities, who first remarked, when looking back on a lifetime's work dedicated to creating a united Europe, that "if we were to start all over again, we would start with culture." In fact, Monnet never said anything of the kind, and none of the EU founding fathers had a vision of culture as a binding force for European unity. Like most myths, the significance of this story lies less in its historical accuracy than in its telling, and in the fact that it is still frequently cited by European Union policy elites to support the argument for increased European-level intervention in the field of culture. Monnet's oft-cited apocryphal quote is important for two reasons. First, because it is indicative of the growing political weight that European policy professionals, since the 1970s, have come to attach to the idea of "culture" as a key ingredient, indeed, a catalyst, in the integration process. Secondly, because it highlights a key point of this article: namely that the development of EU cultural policy cannot be properly understood outside of the context of the EU's wider political project of "European Construction" and its transition from a loosely structured free trade area into a fledgling, albeit ill-defined, supranational state.2 This has precipitated a progressively more interventionist and—notwithstanding the advance of neoliberalism or the repeated claims about respecting the principle of "subsidiarity"—a typically top-down and dirigiste approach by EU elites to the problem of European integration. What is also significant about the EU's "cultural turn" is that it is often seen, erroneously in my view, as marking a major departure from the traditional "neofunctionalist" approach to integration that prevailed during the 1960s and 70s. That approach, sometimes symbolised as the "Monnet method," was based on American social science assumptions that regional integration in Europe would follow almost automatically from the steady cumulative effects of small incremental steps towards harmonisation and regulation in relatively uncontroversial areas of national policy-making that, on the surface, pose little challenge to strategic national interests or sovereignty. The idea behind this plan was that the integration process would generate its own political dynamic—i.e. a "spillover" effect—whereby integration in one sector or policy field would generate momentum for integration in others (cf. Haas 1958; Lindberg 1963).3
วัฒนธรรมและการบูรณาการยุโรปใน Perspective1 พัณฑ์ วัฒนธรรมมีค่า intrinsic สำคัญทุกคนในยุโรป เป็นองค์ประกอบสำคัญของการรวมยุโรป และสนับสนุน เพื่อยืนยันและพลังของรูปแบบสังคมในยุโรป และอิทธิพลของชุมชนบนฉากต่างประเทศ 2000 รัฐสภายุโรป 1 แม้ว่าเป้าหมายที่จะ พัฒนาความรู้สึกของวัฒนธรรมร่วม EU ได้ยังกระตือรือร้นที่จะรักษาลักษณะเฉพาะของยุโรปหลายวัฒนธรรม ภาษาชนกลุ่มน้อยเช่น พบกับ CEC 2002, 5 เป็นใบเสนอราคาที่สองที่อ้างข้างต้นบ่งชี้ ชุดรูปแบบของยุโรป "วัฒนธรรม" (หรือ "วัฒนธรรม") ได้กลายเป็น ประเด็นของการเติบโตความกังวลสำหรับสหภาพยุโรป (EU) ยัง มีบางสิ่งบางอย่างที่ขัดแย้งในลักษณะแนวคิดของวัฒนธรรมรู้สึก และการใช้งานใน EU อย่างเป็นทางการประการ ความสับสนที่อาจจะเป็นอาการของความคลุมเครือปรัชญาที่ลึกซึ้งมากขึ้นสถานะและข้อกำหนดของสหภาพและ people(s) ของ curiously ในระยะสั้น เป็นสหภาพยุโรป (หรือ ใช้ลงตัวก่อนหน้า สหภาพยุโรป), หนึ่งคนหรือหลายคน และอะไรจะ ควร ความสัมพันธ์ระหว่าง peoplehood และวัฒนธรรมของยุโรปเกิดระบบการปกครององค์กรเหนือรัฐ ในขณะที่คำสั่งของรัฐสภายุโรปพูด "รุ่นยุโรปของสังคม" และ "intrinsic ค่าของวัฒนธรรม" "ทุกคนในยุโรป" งบที่ belies ความคิด consensual สังคมและวัฒนธรรม และการ conspicuously หลีกเลี่ยงการใช้คำนามพหูพจน์ คำสั่งของคณะกรรมาธิการยุโรปนึกถึง "วัฒนธรรมหลาย" ที่ EU "กระตือรือร้นที่จะรักษา" และที่เป็นเอกภาพทางวัฒนธรรมสำคัญของยุโรป นี้ความแตกต่างระหว่างรู้สึกเป็นเอกพจน์ และรวมวัฒนธรรมเอนทิตี และยุโรปรู้สึกเป็นพื้นที่ของความหลากหลาย การควบบริษัทหลายวัฒนธรรม และ โดย ปริยาย น่าหลายคนสนใจ ยัง underlies ของหน่วยงานทางการเมืองคีย์แบบจินตนาการรวมยุโรป เท่าที่ผมจะกล่าวด้านล่าง คำอุปมาของ EU หุ้น "เอกภาพในความหลากหลาย" "วัฒนธรรมโม" หรือ "ครอบครัววัฒนธรรม" เพียงพอความขัดแย้งนี้พื้นฐานระหว่างความคิด foundational ของยุโรปเป็นการ "เคยใกล้สหภาพระหว่างชนชาติของยุโรป เข้าใจว่าเป็นได้ และความคิดรวมเป็นกระบวนการที่นำไปสู่การ"ยุโรปคน" If the quotes above are indicative of an increasing official emphasis on the role of "culture" in the construction of the new Europe, they also epitomise the important link between policy, identity-construction, and power or, to use terminology more typical of EU parlance, between "social cohesion," "European construction" and "governance." The drawing together of these themes around the notion of culture is of recent origin. According to modern myth, it was Jean Monnet, the celebrated French statesman and founding father of the European Communities, who first remarked, when looking back on a lifetime's work dedicated to creating a united Europe, that "if we were to start all over again, we would start with culture." In fact, Monnet never said anything of the kind, and none of the EU founding fathers had a vision of culture as a binding force for European unity. Like most myths, the significance of this story lies less in its historical accuracy than in its telling, and in the fact that it is still frequently cited by European Union policy elites to support the argument for increased European-level intervention in the field of culture. Monnet's oft-cited apocryphal quote is important for two reasons. First, because it is indicative of the growing political weight that European policy professionals, since the 1970s, have come to attach to the idea of "culture" as a key ingredient, indeed, a catalyst, in the integration process. Secondly, because it highlights a key point of this article: namely that the development of EU cultural policy cannot be properly understood outside of the context of the EU's wider political project of "European Construction" and its transition from a loosely structured free trade area into a fledgling, albeit ill-defined, supranational state.2 This has precipitated a progressively more interventionist and—notwithstanding the advance of neoliberalism or the repeated claims about respecting the principle of "subsidiarity"—a typically top-down and dirigiste approach by EU elites to the problem of European integration. What is also significant about the EU's "cultural turn" is that it is often seen, erroneously in my view, as marking a major departure from the traditional "neofunctionalist" approach to integration that prevailed during the 1960s and 70s. That approach, sometimes symbolised as the "Monnet method," was based on American social science assumptions that regional integration in Europe would follow almost automatically from the steady cumulative effects of small incremental steps towards harmonisation and regulation in relatively uncontroversial areas of national policy-making that, on the surface, pose little challenge to strategic national interests or sovereignty. The idea behind this plan was that the integration process would generate its own political dynamic—i.e. a "spillover" effect—whereby integration in one sector or policy field would generate momentum for integration in others (cf. Haas 1958; Lindberg 1963).3
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