This study investigates whether managers who issue annual earnings
forecasts manage reported earnings toward their forecasts, fearing legal
actions by investors and loss of reputation for accuracy. I hypothesize that
managers make income-increasing (decreasing) accounting decisions
when earnings would otherwise be below (above) management forecasts,
and that the earnings management activity is increasing in expected
forecast error costs.1 These costs are likely higher for overestimates than
for underestimates and are increasing in the magnitude of the forecast