principles (UNGC 2013).
There are no rules an institution has to follow to demonstrate
that they have implemented the ten principles, but the
UN recommends institutions follow a commitment—system—
activity approach to reporting. They can demonstrate
commitment through a written statement. They can then
describe the processes or systems in place to ensure the
commitments are met. The institution is also encouraged to
describe the actions they have taken to demonstrate their
commitment. The final step is an outcomes assessment. The
UN Global Compact encourages institutions to identify performance
indicators that relate to each of the ten principles.
Institutions can choose indicators or metrics that they feel are
most representative of their overall performance. Finally,
institutions are encouraged to share their COP with their
stakeholders through their annual report or in a separate CSR
report, and by posting it on the Global Compact website.
AccountAbility’s AA1000 Series
The AA1000 Series are principle-based standards created
for organizations to help them address and improve sustainability
performance. The AA1000 Series began in 1999
and includes the AA1000 Principles Standard, AA1000
Assurance Standard, and AA1000 Stakeholder Engagement
Standard. The AA1000 Principles Standard was developed
in 2008 to help companies build a CSR reporting system. It
helps companies address issues of stakeholder engagement,
identify social and environmental indicators, and prepare a
reliable CSR report. The Principles standard can be used on
its own or in conjunction with other reporting standards.
The AA1000 Assurance Standard, launched in 2003 with a
second edition published in 2008, helps assurance providers
properly evaluate the reliability of a CSR report. The
AA1000 Stakeholder Engagement Standard was developed
in 2005, also with a second edition published in 2008, to
help companies properly address their stakeholders’ concerns.
It is a resource that aids in the implementation,
evaluation, and assurance of stakeholder engagement
(AccountAbility 2012).
The AA1000 is a process standard, which means it
presents processes that an organization should follow to
properly report on social and environmental issues. Unlike
the GRI, it is not a performance standard, so it does not
provide indicators, metrics, or other performance measurements
a company should follow. The AA1000 includes
a framework of principles that CSR reports should address.
It focuses on the processes of reporting and auditing, rather
than on the specific content within the report. The Assurance
Standard provides the principles that should be followed
to properly audit or review a CSR report.
The Stakeholder Engagement Standard provides guidance on
what constitutes quality stakeholder engagement and on
how to assess that quality. The principles of transparency,
responsiveness, and compliance are promoted within the
AA1000 standards.
The Carnegie–Napier Framework
As Hopwood (1983, p. 290) states, accounting is a phenomenon
that derives from and operates in a social context.
The social context in which accounting operates is influenced
by both culture and the external environment.
‘‘Culture’’ encompasses shared values, attitudes, beliefs,
and practices of a group, thus, forming the group’s collective
‘‘world-view’’ (Carnegie and Napier 2002, p. 699).
Initially, national cultures defined accounting systems, but
increasingly we see systems developed by trans-national
groups (Jayasinghe and Thomas 2009). Factors such as the
global demand for harmonized accounting standards and a
growing fight against corruption has increased the need for
reliable and comparable information (Fajardo 2007; Barbu
and Baker 2010).
In this context, Carnegie and Napier proposed a
framework of seven dimensions for the comparative study
of the development of accounting systems and practices.
They stated ‘‘these dimensions are intended to provide
structure to the comparison, and are not proposed as a
general model for CIAH (comparative international
accounting history) research’’ (Carnegie and Napier 2002,
p. 700). However, they go to say that these seven dimensions
‘‘merit consideration as possible areas for attention in
subsequent studies’’ (Carnegie and Napier 2002, p. 700).
Just as the seven dimensions were used to form a comparative
framework for analyzing the development of
financial accounting, the framework can also provide
structure in studying the development of CSR reporting.
That is the primary reason the framework was selected.
These seven dimensions are (Carnegie and Napier 2002,
pp. 700–701):
• Period: accounting developments are influenced by
what is occurring in the political, economic, and social
environments during a given period of time.
• Places: the political, economic, and social environments
mentioned above vary across geographic locations;
thus the accounting developments in one location
may differ from those in another.
• People: the interests and leadership of individuals will
significantly impact accounting developments.
• Practices: past and present accounting practices
have an impact on the subsequent development of
accounting.
• Propagation: the development of accounting requires
channels of communication for ideas to spread.
• Products: the development of accounting may result in
various outcomes, including formal records and reports,
suppliers of accounting services, and the regulation of
such services.
• Profession: the development of accounting may lead to
the formation of organized groups of practitioners and
the adoption of professional standards.
These seven dimensions will serve as our framework for
comparing the relatively recent development of CSR
reporting with the much longer perspective of the development
of financial reporting. The results of this comparison
provide some insight on the possible future
development of CSR reporting.