2.2.8. Mud, ceramic, metallic, cement, and hybrid cookstoves
2.2.8.1. Mud stoves
These stoves use local organic construction materials such as clay, sand, mica, straw, grass, sawdust, or dung. Typically, the mixture consists of soil/clay and organic binding material, with dung for extra adhesion. There are many traditional and improved cookstove designs varying in local materials used, number of potholes provided, chimney use, etc. Most of the earliest models from Indian sub-continent were mud stoves, for example “Improved Single Mouth Cooking Stove” (1982-Bangladesh) and “Anagi” (1986-Sri Lanka) [16]. Recent examples of mud stoves are “Improved Clay Stove” (Darfur) [60], “Rocket mud stove” (Uganda) [61] and “mud stove by Escorts Foundation” (Pakistan) [16]. Custom-built mud stoves in India are “Astra” and “Parvati” [62].
Mud stoves are the cheapest type of stoves available, after the TSF. However, mud stoves are insects damage prone, weather, and overfeeding of fuel; hence need higher maintenance, and serve for a lifespan of usually one-two years only [20].
2.2.8.2. Ceramic stoves
Ceramic stoves also use clay, sand, mica, straw, grass, sawdust combined with organic binding materials. The difference in mud stoves and the ceramic stoves is that the ceramic stoves are ablaze in a high temperature kiln resulting in better durability, insulation, and finish. Some examples include the “Mogogo” and “Maendaleo” (East Africa) [60]. All modern ceramic stoves have metal cladding, over the ceramic body, for protection purpose; for examples “Lakech charcoal stove” (Ethiopia) [6], “New Lao Stove” (Cambodia); “Gyapa”, “Uhai” and “Ceramic Jiko” (Kenya); and “StoveTec Prototype Charcoal Stove” [31] and [61]. Ceramic stoves are more robust than mud stoves, if ablaze correctly. However, Ceramic stoves are costly and difficult to construct than the mud stoves, require maintenance, and have limited flexibility for different pot sizes.
2.2.8.3. Metallic stoves
These are the stoves constructed from steel, sheet metal, or heavy metals like cast iron. The metallic stoves include “Domestic Metal Stove” (Jumla), a special purpose stove designed for high altitude cooking in Nepal; and “Bukhari”, MA-II and I [16]. Some recent metallic stoves include the “Vesto” [60], “Envirofit G-3300 Stove”, “Philips Natural Draft Stove HD4008”, “Berkeley-Darfur Stove”, VITA stove [31], “metallic Jiko” (Africa) [32]; “Vikram”, “Harsha”, and “Magh stove” (India) [63] and [64].
Metallic stoves are lightweight, portable, quick heating, durable, require little maintenance, and are available in many models in different colors. Disadvantages are prone to corrosion, the risk of burns, and are costliest.
2.2.8.4. Cement stoves
There are many ICS models constructed of cement. Some of the earliest models include “WS Fuel-Saving Composite Stove” from china [48]; and the “Laxmi” stove from India which was originally a mud stove, however, in the later years of the NPIC, cement versions of such stoves were launched; other examples include “Astra” and “Priya” stoves [54]. The “Mirt” stove, made from cement and pumice in Ethiopia since early 1990s, have reported life span of eight years with the fuel efficiency of up to 40% over the TSF [6].
2.2.8.5. Hybrid stoves
These modern prefabricated stoves use more than one type of materials like mud, cement, metal or ceramic. Almost all modern charcoal stoves [6], [31] and [61] and ABSs are of hybrid type where the combustion chamber is of ceramic material, and the outer body is metallic, for example “StoveTec” [26], “Philips Power Stove HD4012” [32], “Oorja” [37], and “Side Feed Fan Stove” from ARC [42].
2.2.9. Fuel wood, charcoal, agri-residue, dung cake and other fuel cookstoves
2.2.9.1. Fuel wood ICS
Wood fuel is the principal source of household energy in developing countries [65]. A majority of ICSs uses wood as a fuel. Widely used stoves in this category is the “6-brick rocket stove”, used in refugee camps in Africa [32]; “WFP Rocket stove” developed by ARC, “Envirofit G-3300 Stove”, “Philips models HD4008 and HD4012”, “Sampada” gasifier stove, “StoveTec Greenfire Wood Stove”, “Berkeley–Darfur Stove” [32] and [38], and the VITA stove designed by Dr. Baldwin [31].
2.2.9.2. Charcoal ICS