Another factor that is likely to affect satisfaction with life is the extent and direction of social comparison in different societies, which affects not only evaluations of income, but also aspects of life such as consumption. Caporale et al. (2009:42) found striking differences between the effects of social comparison in Eastern and Western European, suggesting that in the former “reference income is likely to be a source of information for forming expectations about their future economic prospects, rather than a yardstick measure for social comparison”. Research in Peru by Guillen-Royo (2011) found similarly that while the performance of a local reference group influenced evaluations of satisfaction with household clothes, housing and children’s education, its performance was not considered in evaluating physical health. Finally, Hinks and Davies (2008) found in Malawi that relative consumption was strongly associated with males’ satisfaction with life, but not with females’.