ปฏิเสธคำอธิบายทางเลือกเหล่านี้จะไม่พบใน Masterson, Coltheartและ Meara (1985) ถ้าอาร์กิวเมนต์เหล่านี้ไม่ถูกต้อง อย่างไรก็ตามพวกเขาไม่ควรส่งผลกระทบต่ออาร์กิวเมนต์ที่ใส่ไปในส่วนที่ 2ส่วนสองเพื่อดูว่าทำไมกรณีของ FE จะเป็นหนึ่งที่สำคัญสำหรับครูผู้สอนภาษาอังกฤษเป็นภาษาที่สอง เราก่อนต้องการที่จะให้เราอธิบายว่า พฤติกรรมของเขาแตกต่างจากสิ่งที่เราหวังในปกติผู้อ่าน แบบนี้จะแสดงในรูปที่ 1เขียนคำorthographicการนำเสนอB » >พูดคำคำโครงสร้างประโยคการนำเสนอ1A » > 1ฉัน: « ,.------------,จิตปทานุกรมรูปที่ 1 แบบจำลองแผนผังตัวอย่างการเขียนคำตามแบบจำลองนี้ มีสองวิธีในการจดจำเขียนคำ เส้นทางแรก (A ในรูปที่ 1) เรียกว่าตรง LEXICALเส้นทางเข้าถึง เมื่อกระบวนการผลิตนี้เป็นลูกจ้าง ผิวคำโครงสร้างประโยคการประมวลผลของรูปเล่นไม่มีบทบาทเลย การรับรู้การพิมพ์แบบฟอร์มขึ้นอยู่กับลักษณะ orthographic เพียงอย่างเดียว ที่สองเส้นทาง (B ในรูปที่ 1) มีความซับซ้อนมากขึ้น ในกรณีนี้ ที่ orthographicแบบฟอร์มของคำเป็นจะถูกแปลงเป็นการคำโครงสร้างประโยคก่อนแสดงอยู่ ปทานุกรมจิตถึงแล้วทำผ่านเหล่านี้เป็นสื่อกลางนำเสนอคำโครงสร้างประโยค เหมือนได้ถ้าการคำหนึ่งที่พูดได้หนึ่งสามารถอธิบายพฤติกรรมของ dyslexics ผิว (หรือ"ชาว" หรือเริ่มต้นอ่าน) เป็นกระบวนการ A โดยตรงเกี่ยวกับคำศัพท์32 TESL CANADA JOURNAL/REVUE TESL DU CANADAVOL. 3, 3, NO.1, NOVEMBER 1985.Access route-is not available to them. Such readers rely almost entirelyon the alternative phonologically mediated route. They are thus unable toread irregular words correctly because these are the very cases where thereis no clear link between spelling and pronunciation. They fail to distinguishhomophones because the phonological representations of homophonesare identical. On the other hand, these readers can handle legalnon-words easily because the regular nature of these words means thattheir phonological representations are accurate. The model thereforesuggests that word recognition in these readers looks something like themodel shown in Figure 2.writtenwordorthographicrepresentationmentallexiconspokenwordphonologicalrepresentationFigure 2. A schematic model of the recognition of written words by surfacedyslexics, "Phoenicians" and beginning readers.Clearly, a word recognition system such as that shown in Figure 2 willbe severely deficient when it comes to operate in English. However, it isnot obvious that this model would lead to any real handicap if one wereoperating in a language which had only a few irregular words. In alanguage like Italian or Finnish, where irregular words and homophonesare practically non-existent, it would be perfectly possible for someone tobe a surface dyslexic, (or a chronic "Phoenician" or a child-like reader)but for this fact never to be observed, or ever to intrude on his daily life.This seems to be very much the case with FE, whose difficulties withwritten language become apparent only when he is required to operate inEnglish.This discussion has two main implications for ESL teachers. Firstly,HIDDEN READING PROBLEMSmany of the world's languages have orthographies that are regular andsystematic, and differ from English in this respect. Now, whatever thecauses of reading difficulties we found in FE, it seems reasonable to guessthat the incidence of severe reading problems of this type among speakersof, say, Spanish, will be about the same as it is for native English speakers.Most of these cases will, however, remain undetected, for the reasonsoutlined above. If any of these people attempt to learn English, however,they are likely to meet with severe difficulties of a kind which are apparentlyunexplainable. Their spoken English will be fine, but their ability tocope with written English will be surprisingly poor, even dramaticallybad. It would clearly be an exaggeration to suggest that this problem is amassive one, but when one considers the many millions ofpeople learningEnglish throughout the world, it is obvious that the chances of anyindividual teacher coming across at least one case like FE must be relativelyhigh. It seems important to us that teachers should be able torecognize such cases when they arise.Ironically, some modem teaching methods actually make the detection
of such cases less likely. In many ESL programs, learners in the early
stages of learning language are given a heavy exposure to the spoken
word, and only limited exposure to the written form of the language. This
means that a learner like FE can progress a long way before anyone
realizes that he has a problem of any sort. When this happens, the
subsequent realization that he cannot cope with written language can be
very disturbing.
A second issue raised by this discussion is a rather more general one. It
is commonly assumed in the psycholinguistic literature that the "natural"
word recognition mechanism is that to be found in the model shown in
Figure I, where access to the lexicon can take place either via the direct
route or via the phonologically mediated route. On consideration, however,
it is not really obvious that this model is the natural one at all.
Consider Spanish again. Spanish, as we have already seen, is a language
with an almost entirely regular orthography. This means that there is no
real need for Spanish speakers to develop a direct lexical access route. For
all practical purposes, a model like that shown in Figure 2 will function
adequately and economically for Spanish, and it could be argued that a
direct lexical access route is a superfluous luxury, both unnecessary and
inefficient. This argument suggests that FE's case is perhaps less peculiar
than it appears to be at first sight. If phonologically mediated access
works well for native speakers of Spanish, then maybe large numbers of
native Spanish speakers will normally fail to develop the full model shown
in Figure 1. The same sort of argument would also apply to native
speakers of other regular languages as well. For all these speakers, the
normal form of development could possibly correspond to the model
34 TESL CANADA JOURNAL/REVUE TESL DU CANADA
VOL. 3, , NO. I, NOVEMBER 1985.
shown in Figure 2. Experimental evidence which suggests that this is
indeed the case among speakers of Serbo-Croat which is also a regular
language, can be found in Feldman and Turvey (1983).
The practical consequences of accepting this argument are difficult to
assess. One implication is that we may have been severely underestimating
the difficulties facing speakers of Spanish and similar languages when
they begin to learn English. Generally, we assume that people who are
literate in one language can transfer their skills to another language with
only minimal difficulty. It now looks as though this assumption needs to
be called into question. For many learners, learning to read English may
involve far more than the transfer of existing skills. Even when the
learner's native language is quite similar to English in that it uses the
Roman alphabet, learning to handle English words may involve a fundamental
restructuring of the way the brain handles sequences of letters.
Where the learner's LI does not use the Roman alphabet, the situation
becomes even more complicated. The word recognition model shown in
Figure 2 will certainly not work for Chinese speakers, for example, where
the written forms of words have almost no relationship with their spoken
forms. It also seems unlikely that Figure 2 will work for speakers of
Arabic and Hebrew, where the written form of a word does not usually
contain information about the pronunciation of the vowels. In these
cases, too, and in others like them, learning to recognize words in English
will involve large-scale restructuring of the mechanisms of word recognition,
and this restructuring will be quite different in kind from the sort of
restructuring that is necessary in a speaker of Spanish or Italian. How
such restructuring takes place, or what we could do to help it take place
efficiently and smoothly, are two questions for which there are currently
no answers.
It has become rather fashionable recently for people to point out how
very little we know about how words in a second language become
integrated into learners' mental lexicons. FE's case suggests that we
actually know even less about it than we thought we did.
REFERENCES
Baron, J. & Strawson, C. (1976). Use oforthographic and word-specific knowledge
in reading words aloud. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Perception and Performance, 2, 386-393.
Coltheart, M., Masterson, J., Byng, S., Prior, M. & Riddoch, J. (1983). Surface
dyslexia. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35a, 469-495.
Feldman, L.B. & Turvey, M.T. (1983). Word recognition in Serbo-Croatian is
phonologically analytic. Journal ofExperimental Psychology: Human Perception
and Performance, 9(2) 288-298.
HIDDEN READING
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