4. Discussion
Our findings of impairment in acetylcholine-induced endothelial-dependent vasorelaxation are similar to previous experimental and clinical studies examining the one-time effect of a single binge episode on endothelial function [5] and [6]. The new finding of our study is that vitamin C prevented the endothelial dysfunction induced by ethanol, further implicating oxidative stress in such response. Our results are relevant since plasma ethanol levels here described are within the range found in the bloodstream of humans after binge drinking[25] and [26], and in rats 30 min after the oral administration of ethanol [5] and [27].
In the rat aorta, the muscarinic cholinergic receptor subtype 3 (M3R) mediates the endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by acetylcholine [28]. Endothelial M3R signals trough eNOS and causes relaxation of the aorta via NO production [29]. Thus, the reduced responsiveness of aortas from ethanol-treated rats to acetylcholine could be due to an impaired production of NO in response to M3R activation. The lack of effect of ethanol on SNP-induced relaxation indicates that the NO pathway, which involves the activation of the enzyme guanylate cyclase and the production of cGMP is therefore unaffected by acute ethanol intake. Our data further shows that in endothelial cells from ethanol-treated rats, vitamin C prevented the decrease in [NO]c in response to acetylcholine, suggesting that vitamin C preserves the endothelial generation of NO in response to M3R activation. This idea is strength by our functional data showing that the inhibition induced by L-NAME on acetylcholine-induced relaxation was more pronounced in aortas from ethanol-treated rats and that this response was not observed after treatment with vitamin C. However, vitamin C was not able to prevent the reduction in the basal production of NOx in aortic homogenates. It is important to note that NOx levels described here represent the basal levels of NO and not the NO generated in response to acetylcholine. This might explain the lack of effect of vitamin C on preventing the reduction in NOx levels because basal NO or the NO released in response to acetylcholine are generated by different sources. Thus, in endothelial cells, vitamin C protects M3R-stimulated production of NO rather than the basal production of NO. Moreover, NOx levels were evaluated in aortic homogenates and for this reason this result will reflect the response of the whole aortic tissue to ethanol without distinction between the endothelium and VSMC.
Endothelial dysfunction is caused by an increase in ROS generation and a subsequent reduction of endothelial NO bioavailability, either by increasing its oxidative inactivation and/or by decreasing its synthesis [30]. Vitamin C induces activation of eNOS and increases NO synthesis in endothelial cells [31] and [32], and these effects could have contributed to the improved endothelium-dependent vasodilatation in our model. In the vascular endothelium NO is synthesized by eNOS [33], and the activity of this NOS isoform is regulated by the calcium-calmodulin complex, which interacts with eNOS, resulting in increased enzymatic activity [29]. Additionally, eNOS activation may also be independent of calcium [34]. The serine/threonine kinase Akt phosphorylates eNOS at Ser1177 residue thereby activating the enzyme [35]. In contrast, eNOS is inhibited by phosphorylation of the Thr495 residue, which interferes with the binding of calmodulin to the eNOS calmodulin-binding domain [36]. In the present study, vitamin C increased the phosphorylation of Akt and eNOS at Ser1177 residue and this response could be involved in the protective effect of vitamin C on [NO]c in endothelial cells. However, studies on eNOS activation on endothelial cells would be of interest to clarify this point.
NO inactivation is usually increased in the presence of excessive levels of O2−, which can lead to a decreased vasorelaxation. The present findings demonstrated that ethanol increased O2− generation in the rat aorta, which is in accordance with previous findings [5]. We also showed increased ROS generation in endothelial cells from ethanol-treated rats. The increased generation of O2− induced by ethanol could reduce NO bioavailability and additionally counteract the relaxation induced by acetylcholine due to its direct contractile actions in VSMC [8]. Vitamin C prevented ethanol-induced ROS generation in endothelial cells but not in aortic homogenates as observed in the lucigenin-derived chemiluminescence assay. This result suggests that vitamin C exerts its antioxidant action in endothelial cells and that this action is probably responsible for the maintenance of [NO]c in those cells. The selective action of vitamin C on endothelial cells is corroborated by our findings in cultured VSMC. We demonstrated that exposure of cultured aortic VSMC to ethanol resulted in an increased generation of O2−. Similar to the findings in the experiments with aortic homogenates, vitamin C failed to prevent ethanol-induced O2− generation in VSMC. Reasons for the lack of effect of vitamin C on O2− generation in VSMC are unclear. A possible explanation for this response is that the dose/concentration as well as the period of treatment with vitamin C varies in different studies [12], [16], [17], [18], [37] and [38]. A second explanation concerns the flux of vitamin C across the plasma membrane. Simple diffusion of vitamin C plays a minor role in this process, which is controlled by specific mechanisms of transport that concentrate vitamin C intracellularly enhancing its function as an antioxidant. The active transport of vitamin C through the sodium-dependent transporters SVCT1 and SVCT2 is a relevant mechanism for the transport of vitamin C. Importantly, this transport pathway is regulated under physiological conditions and varies among different cell types [39]. Thus, different patterns on vitamin C uptake by endothelial cells and VSMC could explain the discrepancy described in our study. The fact that levels of plasma TBARS were increased in ethanol-treated rats suggest that increased ROS generation is probably a global phenomenon. Of note, ethanol did not alter aortic GSH levels indicating that, despite the increase in vascular O2− generation, no reduction in cellular antioxidant capacity was evidenced. All together, our results suggest that ethanol-induced increase in O2− generation in endothelial cells is implicated in diminishing the production/release of NO mediated by M3R.
Chen et al. [12] showed that treatment with vitamin C increased SOD activity and improved acetylcholine-induced relaxation in mesenteric arteries from hypertensive rats. SOD activity was increased by vitamin C in our study, and this could be the mechanism underlying its protective action on acetylcholine-induced relaxation. Our functional data strength this idea since tempol, a mimetic of SOD, prevented the decrease in acetylcholine-induced relaxation induced by acute ethanol intake. Moreover, the fact that DETCA, a SOD inhibitor, reduced the relaxation induced by acetylcholine in animals from the ethanol group treated with vitamin C, support the notion that SOD plays a role in the protective effect displayed by the vitamin. Mechanisms whereby vitamin C induces SOD activation are ill defined. Vitamin C was described to directly influence the biological activity of SOD trough phosphorylation of p38MAPK [40]. The present findings show that vitamin C increased p38MAPK phosphorylation, which could be related to SOD activation in our model.
In the vascular tissue, ethanol-mediated generation of O2− and H2O2 is associated with elevations in intracellular calcium and vasoconstriction [8] and [11]. O2− is reduced by SOD to H2O2[10]. The latter is regulated by intracellular and extracellular enzymes, including CAT, which converts H2O2 into water and O2. H2O2 is implicated in the regulation of signaling pathways that lead to vascular contraction [41] and [42], and an increase in H2O2 generation by ethanol could counteract acetylcholine-induced relaxation. However, since no differences on H2O2 levels or CAT activity were evidenced after treatment with ethanol, we conclude that H2O2 seems not to contribute to the vascular dysfunction in our model.
O2− and H2O2 act as signaling molecules, influencing intracellular pathways involved in inflammation, cell growth, and contraction, such as MAPKs [10]. Activation of these molecules is important in the regulation of vascular function and tone. The most common MAPKs are the extracellular signal-regulated kinase ERK1/2, p38MAPK and c-Jun.-N-terminal kinase (JNK). In the present study ethanol did not induce MAPKs phosphorylation. On other hand, vitamin C induced phosphorylation of p38MAPK, which is in accordance with previous findings in human urinary bladder cells [37], rabbit myocytes [43], and bovine endothelial cells [38]. The selective activation of p38MAPK by vitamin C may be related to its specific action on MEKs, which are upstream MAPKs activators. While MEK1/2 phosphorylates ERK1/2, MEK4/7 and MEK3/6 phosphorylates JNK and p38MAPK, respectively [44]. In this sense, the selective action of vitamin C on p38MAPK phosphorylation could be the result of the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that regulates MEK3/6 activation.
RhoA, a member of the Rho family of small GTPase-binding proteins, is abundantly expressed in VSMCs and participates in vasoconstriction via phosphorylation of myosin light chain and sensitization of contractile proteins to calcium. Rho shuttles between the active GTP-bound form on the cell membrane and the inactive GDP-bound form in the cytoplasm. RhoA translocation to the membrane is associated with its activation[45] and [46]. Activation of RhoA is recognized as an important intracellular mechanism of vasoconstriction and accordingly has been implicated in the pathophysiology of hypertension and other
4. สนทนาเราพบผลในเกิด acetylcholine บุผนังหลอดเลือดขึ้นอยู่กับ vasorelaxation จะคล้ายกับก่อนหน้านี้ทดลอง และทางคลินิกศึกษาตรวจสอบผลครั้งเดียวตอนดื่มสุราเดียวฟังก์ชันบุผนังหลอดเลือด [5] และ [6] ค้นหาใหม่ของเราคือ วิตามินซีที่ทำให้ไม่สามารถทำบุผนังหลอดเลือดที่เกิดจากเอทานอล implicating oxidative ความเครียดในการตอบสนองดังกล่าวเพิ่มเติม ผลของเราจะเกี่ยวข้องตั้งแต่ระดับเอทานอลพลาสม่าที่อธิบายไว้ที่นี่ภายในช่วงที่พบ ในกระแสเลือดของมนุษย์หลังจากการดื่มสุราดื่ม [25] และ [26], และ ในหนู 30 นาทีหลังจากดูแลช่องปากของเอทานอล [5] และ [27]In the rat aorta, the muscarinic cholinergic receptor subtype 3 (M3R) mediates the endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by acetylcholine [28]. Endothelial M3R signals trough eNOS and causes relaxation of the aorta via NO production [29]. Thus, the reduced responsiveness of aortas from ethanol-treated rats to acetylcholine could be due to an impaired production of NO in response to M3R activation. The lack of effect of ethanol on SNP-induced relaxation indicates that the NO pathway, which involves the activation of the enzyme guanylate cyclase and the production of cGMP is therefore unaffected by acute ethanol intake. Our data further shows that in endothelial cells from ethanol-treated rats, vitamin C prevented the decrease in [NO]c in response to acetylcholine, suggesting that vitamin C preserves the endothelial generation of NO in response to M3R activation. This idea is strength by our functional data showing that the inhibition induced by L-NAME on acetylcholine-induced relaxation was more pronounced in aortas from ethanol-treated rats and that this response was not observed after treatment with vitamin C. However, vitamin C was not able to prevent the reduction in the basal production of NOx in aortic homogenates. It is important to note that NOx levels described here represent the basal levels of NO and not the NO generated in response to acetylcholine. This might explain the lack of effect of vitamin C on preventing the reduction in NOx levels because basal NO or the NO released in response to acetylcholine are generated by different sources. Thus, in endothelial cells, vitamin C protects M3R-stimulated production of NO rather than the basal production of NO. Moreover, NOx levels were evaluated in aortic homogenates and for this reason this result will reflect the response of the whole aortic tissue to ethanol without distinction between the endothelium and VSMC.ทำบุผนังหลอดเลือดเกิดจาก ROS สร้างการเพิ่มและลดตามมาของบุผนังหลอดเลือดไม่มีชีวปริมาณออกฤทธิ์ โดยการเพิ่มการยกเลิกการเรียก oxidative หรือ โดยการลดการสังเคราะห์ [30] วิตามินซีแท้จริงเปิดใช้งานของ eNOS และเพิ่มไม่สังเคราะห์ในเซลล์บุผนังหลอดเลือด [31] และ [32], และผลกระทบเหล่านี้อาจมีส่วน vasodilatation endothelium-ขึ้นอยู่กับการปรับปรุงในรุ่นของเรา ใน endothelium ของหลอดเลือดไม่สังเคราะห์ โดย eNOS [33], และกิจกรรมของ isoform ชุดหมายเลขนี้จะถูกกำหนด โดยซับซ้อน calmodulin แคลเซียม การโต้ตอบกับ eNOS ในกิจกรรมเอนไซม์ในระบบเพิ่มขึ้น [29] นอกจากนี้ การเปิดใช้งานของ eNOS ยังได้อิสระของแคลเซียม [34] Kinase แถ/ทรีโอนีน Akt phosphorylates eNOS ที่ตกค้าง Ser1177 จึงเรียกใช้เอนไซม์ [35] ในทางตรงกันข้าม eNOS ถูกห้าม โดย phosphorylation ของตกค้าง Thr495 ซึ่งรบกวนการผูกพันของ calmodulin โดเมน calmodulin ผูก eNOS [36] ในการศึกษาปัจจุบัน วิตามินซีเพิ่มขึ้น phosphorylation Akt และ eNOS ใน Ser1177 สารตกค้าง และผลตอบรับนี้อาจเกี่ยวข้องในการป้องกันผลของวิตามินซี c [ไม่] ในเซลล์บุผนังหลอดเลือด อย่างไรก็ตาม การศึกษาการเปิดใช้งานของ eNOS ในเซลล์บุผนังหลอดเลือดจะน่าสนใจเพื่อชี้แจงจุดนี้NO inactivation is usually increased in the presence of excessive levels of O2−, which can lead to a decreased vasorelaxation. The present findings demonstrated that ethanol increased O2− generation in the rat aorta, which is in accordance with previous findings [5]. We also showed increased ROS generation in endothelial cells from ethanol-treated rats. The increased generation of O2− induced by ethanol could reduce NO bioavailability and additionally counteract the relaxation induced by acetylcholine due to its direct contractile actions in VSMC [8]. Vitamin C prevented ethanol-induced ROS generation in endothelial cells but not in aortic homogenates as observed in the lucigenin-derived chemiluminescence assay. This result suggests that vitamin C exerts its antioxidant action in endothelial cells and that this action is probably responsible for the maintenance of [NO]c in those cells. The selective action of vitamin C on endothelial cells is corroborated by our findings in cultured VSMC. We demonstrated that exposure of cultured aortic VSMC to ethanol resulted in an increased generation of O2−. Similar to the findings in the experiments with aortic homogenates, vitamin C failed to prevent ethanol-induced O2− generation in VSMC. Reasons for the lack of effect of vitamin C on O2− generation in VSMC are unclear. A possible explanation for this response is that the dose/concentration as well as the period of treatment with vitamin C varies in different studies [12], [16], [17], [18], [37] and [38]. A second explanation concerns the flux of vitamin C across the plasma membrane. Simple diffusion of vitamin C plays a minor role in this process, which is controlled by specific mechanisms of transport that concentrate vitamin C intracellularly enhancing its function as an antioxidant. The active transport of vitamin C through the sodium-dependent transporters SVCT1 and SVCT2 is a relevant mechanism for the transport of vitamin C. Importantly, this transport pathway is regulated under physiological conditions and varies among different cell types [39]. Thus, different patterns on vitamin C uptake by endothelial cells and VSMC could explain the discrepancy described in our study. The fact that levels of plasma TBARS were increased in ethanol-treated rats suggest that increased ROS generation is probably a global phenomenon. Of note, ethanol did not alter aortic GSH levels indicating that, despite the increase in vascular O2− generation, no reduction in cellular antioxidant capacity was evidenced. All together, our results suggest that ethanol-induced increase in O2− generation in endothelial cells is implicated in diminishing the production/release of NO mediated by M3R.เฉิน al. ร้อยเอ็ด [12] พบว่า การรักษา ด้วยวิตามินซีเพิ่มกิจกรรมสดและปรับปรุง acetylcholine ทำให้เกิดความผ่อนคลายในหลอดเลือดแดง mesenteric จากหนู hypertensive กิจกรรมสดเพิ่มขึ้น โดยวิตามินซีในการศึกษาของเรา และอาจมีกลไกต้นแบบของการดำเนินการป้องกันบน acetylcholine ทำให้เกิดการผ่อนคลาย เรากำลังทำงานข้อมูลความคิดนี้ตั้งแต่ tempol, mimetic ของสด ป้องกัน acetylcholine ทำให้เกิดเป็นเกิดจากปริมาณเอทานอลเฉียบพลันลดลง ยิ่งไปกว่านั้น ความจริงที่ว่า DETCA ผลที่สด ลดราคาผ่อนที่เหนี่ยวนำ โดย acetylcholine ในสัตว์จากกลุ่มเอทานอลที่รับการรักษา ด้วยวิตามินซี สนับสนุนความสดมีบทบาทในผลป้องกันโดยวิตามิน โดยวิตามินซีแท้จริงสดเปิดกลไกกำหนดร้ายได้ วิตามินซีถูกอธิบายโดยตรงมีผลต่อกิจกรรมทางชีวภาพของสดราง phosphorylation ของ p38MAPK [40] นำเสนอผลการวิจัยแสดงว่า phosphorylation วิตามิน C เพิ่มขึ้น p38MAPK ซึ่งอาจเกี่ยวข้องกับสดการเปิดใช้งานรุ่นของเราIn the vascular tissue, ethanol-mediated generation of O2− and H2O2 is associated with elevations in intracellular calcium and vasoconstriction [8] and [11]. O2− is reduced by SOD to H2O2[10]. The latter is regulated by intracellular and extracellular enzymes, including CAT, which converts H2O2 into water and O2. H2O2 is implicated in the regulation of signaling pathways that lead to vascular contraction [41] and [42], and an increase in H2O2 generation by ethanol could counteract acetylcholine-induced relaxation. However, since no differences on H2O2 levels or CAT activity were evidenced after treatment with ethanol, we conclude that H2O2 seems not to contribute to the vascular dysfunction in our model.O2− and H2O2 act as signaling molecules, influencing intracellular pathways involved in inflammation, cell growth, and contraction, such as MAPKs [10]. Activation of these molecules is important in the regulation of vascular function and tone. The most common MAPKs are the extracellular signal-regulated kinase ERK1/2, p38MAPK and c-Jun.-N-terminal kinase (JNK). In the present study ethanol did not induce MAPKs phosphorylation. On other hand, vitamin C induced phosphorylation of p38MAPK, which is in accordance with previous findings in human urinary bladder cells [37], rabbit myocytes [43], and bovine endothelial cells [38]. The selective activation of p38MAPK by vitamin C may be related to its specific action on MEKs, which are upstream MAPKs activators. While MEK1/2 phosphorylates ERK1/2, MEK4/7 and MEK3/6 phosphorylates JNK and p38MAPK, respectively [44]. In this sense, the selective action of vitamin C on p38MAPK phosphorylation could be the result of the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that regulates MEK3/6 activation.RhoA, a member of the Rho family of small GTPase-binding proteins, is abundantly expressed in VSMCs and participates in vasoconstriction via phosphorylation of myosin light chain and sensitization of contractile proteins to calcium. Rho shuttles between the active GTP-bound form on the cell membrane and the inactive GDP-bound form in the cytoplasm. RhoA translocation to the membrane is associated with its activation[45] and [46]. Activation of RhoA is recognized as an important intracellular mechanism of vasoconstriction and accordingly has been implicated in the pathophysiology of hypertension and other
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