DISCUSSION
Children in this study population performed below what would be expected from the published norms. It was observed that a large proportion of the children in this group exhibited poor pencil grips while taking the VMI and its subtests. Thus, the lower scores for this population on the tests that are motor-involved could be attributed
to the high percentage of children with poor pencil grips.19 In addition, the school acknowledged that pencil grip and handwriting skills were not emphasized in their curriculum.
A significant difference on the VMI and its subtests was found between the children in the upper and lower quartiles in math and reading performance. Therefore, these results support previous studies showing a significant relation between visual perceptual/ visual motor ability and math and reading achievement.
Furthermore, these significant correlations between visual perception
and academic achievement appear to indicate that perceptual motor
skills could contribute to several basic learning skills associated
with normal educational development, such as (1) accurate visual
perception of letters, phonemes, sight words, and numbers; (2)
visual form constancy (such that variations in handwriting and
font can be accurately interpreted); (3) visual discrimination of
similar letters and numbers (so that similar letters such as “p” and
“q” can be accurately distinguished; (4) visual memory of letters,
phonemes, numbers, and irregular words; (5) visual spatial skill (to maintain one’s place on a page of text or in a column of numbers, for example); (6) visual fine motor skill (such that letters and words can be accurately reproduced within given boundaries); and (7) higher levels of visual conceptualization, visual attention, and visual memory. 3
On the other hand, further analyses of the relation between
VMI scores and reading ability in this group were not consistently
significant. In addition, it could be questioned whether the partial
correlations (0.163 to 0.233), although statistically significant, are
clinically meaningful. The correlations found in the current study
were weaker than those previously reported.5, 10–12, 19 This lower
relation could be attributed to the lack of controls for cognitive
ability/intelligence in some previous studies.5, 10, 11 Conversely,
the lower relation could be due to the fact that the children in this
study were older (second through fourth grade) because it has been
reported that perceptual skills have the greatest impact in the earlier
school years.5, 19
A consistently significant relation was found between visual perceptual
ability and math in this study. This study showed a significant
statistical relation between math achievement and performance
on tests of visual motor integration, visual perception
(visual spatial/visual discrimination skill) and motor coordination.
Therefore, these results support previous reports that visual perceptual
skills are related to mathematics skills.6, 12 In addition,
although it has been argued that reports of a relation between visual
perception and achievement are merely due to the confounding
effects of cognitive ability/intelligence, this study supports previous
research showing that these associations are maintained after
controlling for verbal cognitive ability/intelligence.12 Therefore,
the significant relation between visual perception and achievement
is not merely due to the fact that children who are more intelligent
do better on tests in general.
Finally, regression analysis showed that, among the VMI and
Visual Perception and Motor Coordination tests, performance on
the Visual Perception test was most predictive of current achievement
in math as measured by standardized testing. It could be
argued, however, that the correlations found are influenced by the
specific skills addressed in this study. The current study uses a
global measure of math and reading achievement, yet one may
expect higher correlations for the VMI and Motor Coordination
subtests if a measure that incorporated writing/motor ability had
been used or if handwriting skill had been studied.
In conclusion, visual perceptual skill should be regarded to be
among the factors significantly related to math and reading
achievement. This study suggests that children with poor achievement
in math and reading should be tested for deficits in visual
perceptual skill. Further research should also evaluate the efficacy
of perceptual therapy on academic instruction in children with
perceptual deficits.
DISCUSSION Children in this study population performed below what would be expected from the published norms. It was observed that a large proportion of the children in this group exhibited poor pencil grips while taking the VMI and its subtests. Thus, the lower scores for this population on the tests that are motor-involved could be attributedto the high percentage of children with poor pencil grips.19 In addition, the school acknowledged that pencil grip and handwriting skills were not emphasized in their curriculum.A significant difference on the VMI and its subtests was found between the children in the upper and lower quartiles in math and reading performance. Therefore, these results support previous studies showing a significant relation between visual perceptual/ visual motor ability and math and reading achievement. Furthermore, these significant correlations between visual perceptionand academic achievement appear to indicate that perceptual motorskills could contribute to several basic learning skills associatedwith normal educational development, such as (1) accurate visualperception of letters, phonemes, sight words, and numbers; (2)visual form constancy (such that variations in handwriting andfont can be accurately interpreted); (3) visual discrimination ofsimilar letters and numbers (so that similar letters such as “p” and“q” can be accurately distinguished; (4) visual memory of letters,phonemes, numbers, and irregular words; (5) visual spatial skill (to maintain one’s place on a page of text or in a column of numbers, for example); (6) visual fine motor skill (such that letters and words can be accurately reproduced within given boundaries); and (7) higher levels of visual conceptualization, visual attention, and visual memory. 3 On the other hand, further analyses of the relation betweenVMI scores and reading ability in this group were not consistentlysignificant. In addition, it could be questioned whether the partialcorrelations (0.163 to 0.233), although statistically significant, areclinically meaningful. The correlations found in the current studywere weaker than those previously reported.5, 10–12, 19 This lowerrelation could be attributed to the lack of controls for cognitiveability/intelligence in some previous studies.5, 10, 11 Conversely,the lower relation could be due to the fact that the children in thisstudy were older (second through fourth grade) because it has beenreported that perceptual skills have the greatest impact in the earlierschool years.5, 19A consistently significant relation was found between visual perceptualability and math in this study. This study showed a significantstatistical relation between math achievement and performanceon tests of visual motor integration, visual perception(visual spatial/visual discrimination skill) and motor coordination.Therefore, these results support previous reports that visual perceptualskills are related to mathematics skills.6, 12 In addition,although it has been argued that reports of a relation between visualperception and achievement are merely due to the confoundingeffects of cognitive ability/intelligence, this study supports previousresearch showing that these associations are maintained aftercontrolling for verbal cognitive ability/intelligence.12 Therefore,the significant relation between visual perception and achievementis not merely due to the fact that children who are more intelligentdo better on tests in general.Finally, regression analysis showed that, among the VMI andVisual Perception and Motor Coordination tests, performance onthe Visual Perception test was most predictive of current achievementin math as measured by standardized testing. It could beargued, however, that the correlations found are influenced by thespecific skills addressed in this study. The current study uses aglobal measure of math and reading achievement, yet one mayexpect higher correlations for the VMI and Motor Coordinationsubtests if a measure that incorporated writing/motor ability hadbeen used or if handwriting skill had been studied.In conclusion, visual perceptual skill should be regarded to beamong the factors significantly related to math and readingachievement. This study suggests that children with poor achievementin math and reading should be tested for deficits in visualperceptual skill. Further research should also evaluate the efficacyof perceptual therapy on academic instruction in children withperceptual deficits.
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