Mapping
Geographic noise maps alter the informational
environment and are one way to ensure
that noise control policy is based on objective
and accurate information. The NPS seeks
to expand and increase access to information
technology and integrated data systems.
Governments in the European Union have
already prepared noise maps of roads, railways,
and airports (Commission to the European
Parliament and the Council 2011). Although
the U.S. government does not map noise levels
to protect the public, the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (2012) has
created a noise map of the world’s oceans to
investigate the impact of noise on marine
species. Cities such as San Francisco have
mapped traffic noise, but most cities and states
would need federal support and guidance to
initiate comprehensive mapping. Measurement
and mapping of noise levels—following the
example of the CDC’s air and water quality
databases—would identify priorities for additional
evaluation and help inform protective
measures. Congress can appropriate funding
to the U.S. EPA, ONAC, or CDC to support
this work. However, mapping efforts will
require a substantially increased and ongoing
noise monitoring effort.
State and local action. The NPS addresses
the complex interactions between federal,
state, tribal, local, and territorial policies
addressing community environments. The
NCA was first enacted at the behest of industry
trade groups that argued that national
standards would protect manufacturers from
the imposition of disparate and inconsistent
state and local standards. However, after it was
enacted, industry groups asked for a defunding
of the NCA by asserting that it was best to
control noise at the local level (Shapiro 1991).
State and local governments can enact
regulations on sources of noise not already
regulated by the U.S. EPA or another federal
agency. Theoretically, a mixed system where
federal and state jurisdiction overlap increases
functionality. In the case of noise control,
however, few states and localities attempt
direct regulations because they do not have
sufficient market power and resources and
because of preemption challenges from other
law (Air Transport Association of America v.
Crotti 1975). Municipal regulation evolved
into noise ordinances that regulate the timing
and intensity of noise, are expensive and difficult
to enforce, and have not proven to be
effective at reducing noise (Dunlap 2006).
Given these considerations, we believe
that the most cost-effective legal interventions
at the state and local levels are through
a) spending and procurement, and b) altering
the built environment.
Spending and procurement. A number of
municipal noise sources, including emergency
sirens, transit vehicles, garbage and street maintenance
equipment, and construction equipment
(Bronzaft and Van Ryzin 2007), may
be reduced through careful purchasing and
contractual agreements. Some countries go so
far as to require contractors to pay for temporary
relocation of citizens seeking relief from
construction noise (BSM 2012). Adoption of
procurement policies intended to reduce community
noise is an opportunity for government
to lead by example (Perdue et al. 2003).
Altering the built environment. The NPS
recommends that governments take steps to
ensure safe and healthy housing because health
suffers when people live in poorly designed
physical environments (Perdue et al. 2003).
Although altering the built environment can
influence individual noise exposures, it often
does not reduce noise source levels. In addition,
it can be construed as inherently inequitable
because the recipients of noise bear the burden
of exposure reduction, and those creating the
noise continue to have no incentive to reduce
emissions. Therefore, this intervention requires
thorough analysis and careful planning.
Sustainable building design programs, such
as Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED), offer the possibility of achieving
noise reductions through good acoustical
design (U.S. Green Building Council
2013). LEED standards incorporate American
National Standards Institute recommendations
regarding background noise and encourage
sound-absorptive finishes to limit reverberation
in schools (U.S. Green Building Council
2010). Improvements in construction materials,
siting considerations (e.g., siting sensitive
structures such as homes and schools well
away from noise sources such as high traffic
roads and hospitals), and design can have a
dramatic impact on noise levels inside buildings—and
improve the occupants’ quality of
life in the process.
Although the Federal Highway Administration
does not currently provide federal
funding for low-noise pavement (NAE 2010),
such pavement can reduce noise by up to
6 dB in areas where vehicles travel at speeds
> 35 miles/hr. For slower traffic, planning
can reduce high noise from delivery trucks
within city limits by encouraging adoption of
smaller electric delivery vehicles. This scheme
has already been implemented in several
other countries (Allen et al. 2012) and also
has the potential to reduce air pollution and
traffic fatalities.
Conclusion
We have identified a number of opportunities
to lower noise exposures and ultimately
improve public health while additional
research is being conducted. Updated
national-level estimates of individual noise
exposures are needed; our use of 1981 U.S.
EPA data introduces a substantial amount
of uncertainty into our estimates and highlights
the need for an updated national survey
of noise exposures in the United States.
Although prevention of different health
effects will require additional research to
identify appropriate exposure limits, once
informed and supported by ongoing research,
federal leaders can focus on lowering noise at
its source, and states can prioritize altering
the built environment. Meanwhile, local government
can adjust their procurement policies
and encourage building approaches that
reduce community noise.