Hofstede suggested that the concept of collective mental programming paralleled
Borudieu's theory of habitus. According to Bourdieu (as cited in Hofstede, 2001, p. 4),
habitus is "a system of permanent and transferable tendencies that functions as the basis
for practices and images". The concept of habitus was identified by Alves et al. (2006) as
a factor of self-leadership. Alves et al. argued that habitus was culturally contingent and
that "self-leadership scholars should not neglect this idea, for it suggests that selfleadership
may be different across cultures and amenable to being predicted" (p. 344).