CHAPTER II
BRAINWASHING
The account given by Kinkead of political indoctrination in Korea has been criticized mainly on the grounds that it seems to accept without much question explanations offered by high officials in the U.S. Army and fails to show much sympathy or insight into the minds of the prisoners. This may be so, but from the practical point of view it shows clearly that political indoctrination is not a mysterious process, although certainly a peculiar one judged by experience of past wars, and that its success with the Americans and relative or complete failure with the British and Turks was due to the poor morale of the former and the better discipline of the latter. This is a salutary lesson because, shortly after its introduction by Edward Hunter, the term 'brainwashing' be-came so popular and sounded so terrifying that people really thought that something very odd and frightening was going on and the word was applied indiscriminately to the process of political indoctrination as carried out on prisoners of war in Korea, to the more severe type of indoctrination carried out by the Chinese on civilians, to Eastern European methods, and to those used by the Russians during, and presumably since, the purges of the 193os. The many jokes made about brainwashing only served to show how uneasy people really felt. Rumors arose, some based on the myth that it was a mysterious oriental device' or the deliberate application of Pavlov's findings on dogs, others on the equally silly belief that no such process existed and that it was only an invention of American news correspondents. In fact, as we have seen, the term is psychologically and physiologically meaningless and the process, if real enough, is based on ancient methods carried out by the Chinese for many years and by the Russian secret police long before the Revolution. In November 1956 the American Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry held a conference to clarify the differences between Orwell's fantastic account and the real processes actually used in authentic cases', during which Dr. L. E. Hinkle suggested that the following conclusions can be accepted:
The methods of the Russian and satellite State Police are derived from age-old police methods, many of which were known to the Czarist Okhrana and to its sister organizations in other countries. Communist techniques, when their background is studied, remain police methods. They are not dependent on drugs, hypnotism, or any other special procedure designed by scientists. No scientist took part in their design, nor do scientists participate in their operation. The goal of the KGB — the present designation for the Russian State Police — is a satisfactory' protocol on which a so, called ' trial' may be based. The Chinese have an additional goal; the production of long-lasting changes in the prisoner's basic attitudes and behavior. Of the Chinese Communist program officially described as Szu-Hsiang Kai-Tsao (variously translated as ideological reform', `ideological remolding', or thought reform'), Dr. Robert J. Lifton writes in Thought Reform: A Psychiatric Study of ' Brain-washing' in China:
Such a program is by no means completely new: imposed dogmas, inquisitions, and mass conversion movements have existed in every country and during every historical epoch. But the Chinese Communists have brought to theirs a more organized, comprehensive, and deliberate — a more total character, as well as a unique blend of energetic and ingenious psychological techniques.
What is of particular interest is how the news of such techniques has been received by the public in America and elsewhere since it has exaggerated the latent feeling in the common man that he is being got at' by all sorts of wicked manipulators from the writers of advertisements to the heads of large business enterprises and the teachers in preparatory or public schools. A Sunday newspaper has only to print an article dealing with the procedure of ' subliminal perception' which has the alleged but very dubious power of causing people to make choices without being aware of doing so, to be bombarded by hundreds of indignant letters which reveal the paranoid fear of being manipulated by the elites that is so typical of modern mass society. Of course the public is often being manipulated, and the only surprising thing is that it has taken so long to find this out. What, after all, have priests being doing in their churches for centuries, if not trying to change people? What is the purpose of advertising if not the manipulation of the public within a limited sphere? And we may well ask whether the Communists have devised any method which is half as efficient in 'brainwashing' (or with results which are half as permanent) as the English public school. In an article in the Spectator (17 November 1961), the editor Brian Inglis wrote of his own experiences at public school and its efficiency in indoctrinating its scholars with its own peculiar code of behavior: By the end of the first term the school code had been instilled: at the beginning of the second, I was ready to enforce it on the new boys, and looked forward to seeing them have their normal values talked, jeered, or beaten out of them, and replaced with the school's set. A very ugly set of values they were, in retrospect; elevating dishonesty into a virtue provided it was used against masters; stressing conformity as the prime need. . . . The craft of the brainwasher has never been a mystery to me, since. It may be said, against all evidence, that these values are un-reservedly good whereas those the Communists seek to instil are bad; but this is to ignore the fact that the Chinese Communists are perfectly sincere in their intentions and the values they attempt to instil are in their view good in comparison with the ' rotten capitalist' values of reactionary countries. Their 'thought reform' program is aimed, not primarily at Westerners, but at the Chinese people themselves, and is vigorously applied in schools, universities, special ' revolutionary colleges', prisons, business and government offices, and labor and peasant organizations. For the most part social pressure, exhortation, and ethical appeal are employed and the methods used would seem quite in order to those acquainted with the official and unofficial means of bringing about conformity in our own army or public schools. Coercion to the point of breakdown is more in evidence in the prison and military programs or in those directed against reactionaries, but, as in the public school, it often becomes extremely difficult to say where exhortation ends and coercion begins. As Lifton says: Some people considered [thought reform] a relentless means of undermining the human personality; others saw it as a profoundly moral ' — even religious — attempt to instil new ethics into the Chinese people. Both of these views was partly correct, and yet each, insofar as it ignored the other, was greatly misleading. For it was the combination of external force or coercion with an appeal to inner enthusiasm through evangelistic exhortation which gave thought reform its emotional scope and power. Dr. Lifton's book is concerned with the reform of Westerners and Chinese intellectuals regarded as reactionaries ' who arrived in Hong Kong after their experiences in China rather than with the process as applied to the Chinese people themselves and it is the methods applied to the former who underwent what might be described as ' brainwashing' which we are now going to discuss. Before doing so, however, it is worthwhile mentioning Felix Greene's book The Wall has Two Sides which deals with the re-education of the people within China where, as he points out, the outstanding feature of life today is mass participation by means of meetings and group discussions. Mr. Greene describes how even floor-boys and the crews of long-distance trains are accustomed to get together in informal meetings to talk over how they can be of better service to their guests or run the trains more efficiently. I have come to believe [he says] that the Chinese derive their deepest satisfactions not from a sense of personal importance but from sharing in activities which, have aims beyond the individual. The Government has been extremely skillful in giving pearly everyone a sense that his work fits in somewhere. A floor-boy in this hotel feels that he is participating in the rebirth of China every bit as much as a big shot in the Government. All of them, down to those who do the most menial jobs — pedicab drivers, say — are made to feel they are an essential part of the whole show. It must be noted that this sense of participation, although regarded as of prime importance by industrial psychologists and others concerned with industry, is a feeling which the capitalist countries have on the whole been unsuccessful in arousing. Unless we realize that the Chinese Communists are deeply in earnest about what they are doing, we shall not get very far in understanding their attitude to thought reform. Crime, including the holding of reactionary beliefs, is regarded as a hangover from the old days of capitalism and imperialism and the Chinese Communist Prison Regulations ordain: In dealing with the criminals, there shall be regularly adopted measures of corrective study classes, individual interviews, study of assigned documents, and organized discussions, to educate them in the admission of guilt and obedience to the law, political and current events, labor production, and culture, so as to expose the nature of the crime committed, thoroughly wipe out criminal thoughts, and establish a new moral code.
This is the theoretical background to ideological remoulding. The first of Lifton's subjects was a Dr. Vincent who had con-ducted a lucrative practice in Shanghai until suddenly confronted in the street by five armed men who produced a warrant for his arrest and took him to the p
บทที่สอง BRAINWASHING บัญชีที่กำหนด โดย Kinkead indoctrination ทางการเมืองในเกาหลีมีการวิพากษ์วิจารณ์ส่วนใหญ่ใน grounds ที่ดูเหมือนจะยอมรับ โดยไม่มีคำอธิบายมากคำถามที่นำเสนอ โดยเจ้าหน้าที่สูงในกองทัพสหรัฐฯ และล้มเหลวในการแสดงมากเห็นใจหรือเข้าใจในจิตใจของนักโทษ อาจได้ แต่จากการปฏิบัติมุมมองมันแสดงชัดเจน indoctrination ที่เมืองไม่ใช่กระบวนการลึกลับ แต่แน่นอนตัดสินอันแปลกประหลาดจากประสบการณ์ของสงครามที่ผ่านมา และ ที่ประสบความสำเร็จกับชาวอเมริกันและล้มเหลวญาติ หรือทำกับอังกฤษและเติร์กเป็นขวัญกำลังใจไม่ดีของอดีตและวินัยดีของหลัง คือบทเรียนที่ salutary หลังจากแนะนำโดยฮันเตอร์เอ็ดเวิร์ด คำว่า "brainwashing" จะมาได้รับความนิยม และแต่เพียงแห่งดังนั้นคนที่น่ากลัวจริง ๆ คิดว่า ที่ สิ่งที่แปลกมาก และน่ากลัวเกิดขึ้น และคำที่ถูกประยุกต์ใช้ indiscriminately indoctrination การเมืองกระบวนการที่ดำเนินการกับเชลยศึกเกาหลี ชนิด indoctrination ที่ดำเนินการ โดยชาวจีนในพลเรือนรุนแรงมากขึ้น วิธียุโรปตะวันออก และผู้ใช้ระหว่าง และสันนิษฐานว่า ตั้งแต่ ทิ้งของ 193os นี่ รู้สึกตลกมากมายที่ทำเกี่ยวกับ brainwashing บริการเฉพาะ คนไม่สบายใจว่าการแสดงจริง ๆ ข่าวลือเกิดขึ้น บางตามตำนานว่า เป็นอุปกรณ์แบบโอเรียนเต็ลลึกลับ ' หรือประยุกต์ใช้โดยเจตนาของ Pavlov พบในสุนัข อื่น ๆ บนความเชื่อโง่เท่า ๆ กันกระบวนการดังกล่าวไม่อยู่ และมันเป็นการประดิษฐ์ร่วมข่าวอเมริกันเท่านั้น ในความเป็นจริง เราได้เห็น คำเป็น psychologically และ physiologically ต่าง ๆ และกระบวนการ จริงเพียงพอ ถ้าตามวิธีโบราณที่ดำเนินการ โดยจีนสำหรับหลายปี และตำรวจลับรัสเซียนานก่อนการปฏิวัติ ในเดือนพฤศจิกายนปี 1956 กลุ่มอเมริกันสำหรับก้าวหน้าจิตเวชจัดสามารถยอมรับการประชุมชี้แจงความแตกต่างระหว่างบัญชียอดเยี่ยมของออร์เวลล์และกระบวนการจริงจริง ใช้จริงกรณีของ ซึ่งดร. L. E. ฮินเคิลแนะนำที่สรุปต่อไปนี้: วิธีการของรัสเซียและดาวเทียมรัฐตำรวจมาจากตำรวจโปรดลองอีกวิธี จำนวนมากที่ถูกเรียกว่า Czarist Okhrana และน้องสาวขององค์กรในประเทศอื่น ๆ เทคนิคคอมมิวนิสต์ เมื่อศึกษาเบื้องหลังของพวกเขา ตำรวจวิธีครั้ง พวกเขาจะไม่พึ่งยาเสพติด hypnotism หรือใด ๆ อื่น ๆ กระบวนการพิเศษออกแบบ โดยนักวิทยาศาสตร์ นักวิทยาศาสตร์ไม่ใช้เวลาส่วนหนึ่งในการออกแบบของพวกเขา หรือไม่นักวิทยาศาสตร์เข้าร่วมในการทำงานของ เป้าหมายของ KGB — กำหนดปัจจุบันสำหรับตำรวจรัฐรัสเซียซึ่งเป็นน่าพอใจ ' โพรโทคอลในที่ นั้น เรียกว่า 'ทดลอง' อาจจะใช้ จีนมีเป้าหมายเพิ่มเติม การผลิตยาวนานการเปลี่ยนแปลงในทัศนคติพื้นฐานและพฤติกรรมของนักโทษ โปรแกรมจีนคอมมิวนิสต์อย่างอธิบายเป็นเซียง Szu ไก่ Tsao (แปลเพิ่มเป็นอุดมการณ์ปฏิรูป ', 'remolding อุดมการณ์' หรือความคิดปฏิรูป '), ดร.โรเบิร์ตเจ. Lifton เขียนในความคิดปฏิรูป: ศึกษาจิตเวช A 'สมองซักผ้า' ในจีน: โดยไม่มีโปรแกรมดังกล่าวใหม่ทั้งหมด: บังคับ dogmas, inquisitions และการแปลงมวลที่เคลื่อนไหวมีอยู่ ในทุกประเทศ และ ในทุกยุคประวัติศาสตร์ แต่คอมมิวนิสต์จีนได้นำตนครอบคลุมมากขึ้น จัด และเอาเปรียบ — อักขระรวมมากขึ้น เป็นการผสมผสานเทคนิคทางจิตวิทยามีความกระตือรือร้น และแยบยล What is of particular interest is how the news of such techniques has been received by the public in America and elsewhere since it has exaggerated the latent feeling in the common man that he is being got at' by all sorts of wicked manipulators from the writers of advertisements to the heads of large business enterprises and the teachers in preparatory or public schools. A Sunday newspaper has only to print an article dealing with the procedure of ' subliminal perception' which has the alleged but very dubious power of causing people to make choices without being aware of doing so, to be bombarded by hundreds of indignant letters which reveal the paranoid fear of being manipulated by the elites that is so typical of modern mass society. Of course the public is often being manipulated, and the only surprising thing is that it has taken so long to find this out. What, after all, have priests being doing in their churches for centuries, if not trying to change people? What is the purpose of advertising if not the manipulation of the public within a limited sphere? And we may well ask whether the Communists have devised any method which is half as efficient in 'brainwashing' (or with results which are half as permanent) as the English public school. In an article in the Spectator (17 November 1961), the editor Brian Inglis wrote of his own experiences at public school and its efficiency in indoctrinating its scholars with its own peculiar code of behavior: By the end of the first term the school code had been instilled: at the beginning of the second, I was ready to enforce it on the new boys, and looked forward to seeing them have their normal values talked, jeered, or beaten out of them, and replaced with the school's set. A very ugly set of values they were, in retrospect; elevating dishonesty into a virtue provided it was used against masters; stressing conformity as the prime need. . . . The craft of the brainwasher has never been a mystery to me, since. It may be said, against all evidence, that these values are un-reservedly good whereas those the Communists seek to instil are bad; but this is to ignore the fact that the Chinese Communists are perfectly sincere in their intentions and the values they attempt to instil are in their view good in comparison with the ' rotten capitalist' values of reactionary countries. Their 'thought reform' program is aimed, not primarily at Westerners, but at the Chinese people themselves, and is vigorously applied in schools, universities, special ' revolutionary colleges', prisons, business and government offices, and labor and peasant organizations. For the most part social pressure, exhortation, and ethical appeal are employed and the methods used would seem quite in order to those acquainted with the official and unofficial means of bringing about conformity in our own army or public schools. Coercion to the point of breakdown is more in evidence in the prison and military programs or in those directed against reactionaries, but, as in the public school, it often becomes extremely difficult to say where exhortation ends and coercion begins. As Lifton says: Some people considered [thought reform] a relentless means of undermining the human personality; others saw it as a profoundly moral ' — even religious — attempt to instil new ethics into the Chinese people. Both of these views was partly correct, and yet each, insofar as it ignored the other, was greatly misleading. For it was the combination of external force or coercion with an appeal to inner enthusiasm through evangelistic exhortation which gave thought reform its emotional scope and power. Dr. Lifton's book is concerned with the reform of Westerners and Chinese intellectuals regarded as reactionaries ' who arrived in Hong Kong after their experiences in China rather than with the process as applied to the Chinese people themselves and it is the methods applied to the former who underwent what might be described as ' brainwashing' which we are now going to discuss. Before doing so, however, it is worthwhile mentioning Felix Greene's book The Wall has Two Sides which deals with the re-education of the people within China where, as he points out, the outstanding feature of life today is mass participation by means of meetings and group discussions. Mr. Greene describes how even floor-boys and the crews of long-distance trains are accustomed to get together in informal meetings to talk over how they can be of better service to their guests or run the trains more efficiently. I have come to believe [he says] that the Chinese derive their deepest satisfactions not from a sense of personal importance but from sharing in activities which, have aims beyond the individual. The Government has been extremely skillful in giving pearly everyone a sense that his work fits in somewhere. A floor-boy in this hotel feels that he is participating in the rebirth of China every bit as much as a big shot in the Government. All of them, down to those who do the most menial jobs — pedicab drivers, say — are made to feel they are an essential part of the whole show. It must be noted that this sense of participation, although regarded as of prime importance by industrial psychologists and others concerned with industry, is a feeling which the capitalist countries have on the whole been unsuccessful in arousing. Unless we realize that the Chinese Communists are deeply in earnest about what they are doing, we shall not get very far in understanding their attitude to thought reform. Crime, including the holding of reactionary beliefs, is regarded as a hangover from the old days of capitalism and imperialism and the Chinese Communist Prison Regulations ordain: In dealing with the criminals, there shall be regularly adopted measures of corrective study classes, individual interviews, study of assigned documents, and organized discussions, to educate them in the admission of guilt and obedience to the law, political and current events, labor production, and culture, so as to expose the nature of the crime committed, thoroughly wipe out criminal thoughts, and establish a new moral code. นี่คือเบื้องหลังทฤษฎีเพื่ออุดมการณ์ remoulding ครั้งแรกของหัวข้อของ Lifton มี Vincent ดร.ที่มีคอนสาธารณะปฏิบัติร่ำรวยในเซี่ยงไฮ้จนกระทั่งจู่ ๆ เผชิญในถนนชายอาวุธห้าที่ผลิตหมายจับเขา และเขาใช้กับ p
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