There are numerous dimensions of national culture that exist in the literature, which
categorize how people’s value orientations differ across cultures (e.g., Dorfman,
Hanges, & Brodbeck, 2004; Hofstede, 2001). For example, Hofstede (2001) describes
four dimensions related to work values, including individualism/collectivism, uncertainty
avoidance, power distance, and masculinity/femininity. A fifth dimension, longterm
versus short-term orientation (Hofstede, 2001), was later included. Schwartz
(1994) also identifies seven culture-level value dimensions: conservatism, intellectual
autonomy, affective autonomy, hierarchy, egalitarian commitment, mastery, and harmony.
Trompenaars (1993) and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) propose
five value orientations: universalism, collectivism, neutral, diffuse, and achievement