As there are various measures of firm performance used in prior research, this study
uses two measures of performance: accounting performance and firm value. Accounting
performance, the firm's return on assets (ROAt), is likely to be influenced by the firm's
managerial risk-taking behavior. ROAt is an indication of the ability of the firm to produce
accounting-based revenues in excess of actual expenses from a given portfolio of assets
measured as amortized historical costs (Carter, D'Souza, Simkins, & Simpson, 2010).
ROAt is measured as net income plus interest expense multiplied by (1-corporate tax rate)
and divided by total assets less outside equity interests at year end t.