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When an airline is restructured after a crisis, loans and equity may be written off. Some airlines are granted favoured access to government business which is carried at above market rates.
Subsidies may be embedded in airport charges, to attract airlines to choose certain airports.
Bankruptcy provisions may enable loss-making airlines to trade while not paying their full obligations (e.g. Ch 11 provisions in the US).
Airlines may be granted monopoly privileges with which they can cross-subsidise their operations. An example of this would be where the flag carrier is granted a monopoly of ground handling at the main airport.