INTRODUCTION
Hysterectomy is the second most common major surgical procedure performed in the United States.1 Over one third of women in this country have undergone a hysterectomy by the age of 60.2 The technique and route of delivery of the uterus depend on a combination of factors, including the anticipated pathology, the patient's body habitus, the degree of pelvic relaxation, the need for concurrent abdominal and vaginal procedures, and the expertise of the surgeon. The abdominal hysterectomy is a basic component in the armamentarium of any pelvic surgeon. A standard approach with emphasis on principles of surgical technique is presented.
TECHNIQUE
Preparing the Surgical Field
The operation is performed with the patient in the supine position. Some surgeons prefer a modified lithotomy position using Allen universal stirrups to allow potential access to the vagina and closer proximity of a second assistant. A pelvic exam under anesthesia is routinely performed. This exam further delineates the existing pathology and may help with the selection of the type of incision. It also provides the examiner with immediate feedback on interpreting abnormal findings. The vagina and urethra should be prepped and a Foley catheter placed for straight drainage. A low transverse abdominal incision can be used if cancer is not suspected. This incision can be converted to a Maylard or Cherney incision if increased exposure is necessary. In cases of known or suspected malignancy, a vertical incision is preferred to allow increased exposure to the upper abdomen and improved visualization for appropriate biopsies and node dissection.
When the surgeon enters the peritoneal cavity, the upper abdomen is explored by visualization and palpation to identify any adhesions or masses. A systematic check includes the liver edge, gallbladder, stomach, omentum, small bowel, colon, kidneys, and paraaortic lymph node chain. Any adhesions are released to provide adequate exposure to the pelvic anatomy. The Trendelenburg position assists in maintaining the bowel out of the operative field.
The Balfour retractor is placed. Care should be taken that the ends of the blades do not rest heavily on the psoas muscle because the femoral and genitofemoral nerves can be compressed. The bowel is lifted out of the cul-de-sac with the operator's right hand. The left hand is then used to position the edge of an opened laparotomy pad under the suspended bowel. This laparotomy pad is then draped across the bowel, covering it from right to left gutters like an apron, with the remaining edge tucked under the anterior abdominal wall. A rolled laparotomy pad is then placed immediately laterally in each gutter and pushed directly cephalad to ensure that no bowel escapes down these lateral margins. An upper blade is attached to the Balfour to maintain this position. This blade should be flat and perpendicular to the abdominal wall and not allowed to rest on the aorta and vena cava. A wide, curved Deaver retractor is used to hold back the bladder. This can be held by an assistant and moved from right to left to assist with visualization on each side as the hysterectomy progresses.
The Round and Broad Ligaments
A Kelly clamp is placed immediately lateral to the uterus at each cornua and incorporates the isthmic portion of the fallopian tube and the utero-ovarian ligament within its grasp. Bilateral clamps in this position will allow for elevation, traction, and rotation of the uterus, which will aid in visualization and dissection. The round ligament is grasped with a Kocher clamp midway between the uterus and the internal inguinal ring. A transfixion suture of 2-0 delayed absorbable suture is placed through the distal portion of the round ligament and tagged (Fig. 1). A second suture and/or large hemoclip may be placed across the proximal portion of the round ligament to prevent back-bleeding. The round ligament is transsected and the anterior leaf of the broad ligament is incised toward the level of the internal cervical os with Metzenbaum scissors. This will begin the development of the bladder flap (Fig. 2). The posterior leaf of the broad ligament may also be incised parallel to the infundibulopelvic ligament toward the side wall. This exposure is particularly helpful if the ovaries are to be removed. With traction of the uterus away from the side wall and lifting the tagged, round ligament upward and lateral, the operator can separate the areolar tissue within the broad ligament by spreading the index and middle fingers in a scissorlike manner.
Fig. 1. The round ligament is identified, clamped, and transfixion sutured. This procedure initiates the hysterectomy and allows entrance into the broad ligament and retroperitoneum.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Fig. 2. The anterior leaf of the broad ligament is incised toward the level of the internal os with Metzenbaum scissors. Bilateral incisions meet in the midline.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
The ureter is visualized on the medial leaf of the broad ligament in this space. If adhesive disease impedes visualization here, the ureter can be identified at the pelvic brim where it crosses the iliac vessels at their bifurcation. The ureter can then be followed downward through its course to ensure that further dissection does not compromise its integrity (Fig. 3). The ureter appears as a white, nonpulsatile tubular structure with fine blood vessels noted longitudinally on the adventitia. It is best identified by visualization of its characteristic peristaltic activity. It can also be palpated by the operator's thumb being placed deep on the intraperitoneal side of the posterior medial leaf of the broad ligament and the index finger deep on the retroperitoneal side of this medial leaf. As the operator holds the index finger and thumb together with the peritoneum trapped between and moves upward, the ureter will be palpable and demonstrates a “rubber band—like” twang as released. This palpation can then guide the dissection to achieve adequate visualization.
Fig. 3. The ureter crosses the iliac vessels at their bifurcation, continues below the infundibulopelvic ligament on the posterior medial leaf of the broad ligament, and crosses under the uterine vessels before turning anterior and medially to enter the bladder.
The Ovary and Fallopian Tube
The avascular portion of the posterior broad ligament lateral to the uterus, anterior to the ureter, and posteromedial to the infundibulopelvic ligament is identified and tented upward with the index finger (Fig. 4). It can be bluntly or, if thickened, sharply entered. If the ovary and fallopian tube are not being removed, this window allows isolation of the proximal fallopian tube and utero-ovarian ligament. These structures are clamped with two Kelly clamps close to the uterus with care being taken that the lateral clamp does not impinge on the ovarian capsule. The Kelly clamp on the uterus can be replaced so that its tip extends into the window. The pedicle is cut, leaving two clamps laterally (Fig. 5). This allows the pedicle to be free tied as one clamp is released, then transfixion sutured around the second clamp (Fig. 6).
Fig. 4. The posterior broad ligament is tented upward in the avascular space lateral to the uterus, posteromedial to the adnexa and anterior to the ureter. This space is entered to create a window in the broad ligament.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Fig. 5. If the ovary and fallopian tube are to be conserved, two Kelly clamps are placed across the fallopian tube and utero-ovarian ligament in close proximity to the uterus. The Kelly clamp at the uterine cornua is advanced so that its tip extends into the window.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Fig. 6. A free tie is placed with removal of the lateral clamp.A transfixion suture is then placed beneath the second clamp.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
When the ovary and fallopian tube are to be removed, the window produced in the broad ligament serves to isolate the infundibulopelvic ligament, which is clamped with two Kelly clamps above the level of the ureter. The most distal clamp is placed first. A third clamp immediately adjacent to the ovary and fallopian tube prevents back-bleeding (Fig. 7). The ligament is cut above the two distal clamps. The distal end is free tied and then transfixion sutured with 2-0 delayed absorbable suture. The proximal end is also tied and may be suspended from the Kelly clamp on the uterus to prevent the ovary and tube from obstructing the operative field.
Fig. 7. If the ovary and fallopian tube are to be removed, three Kelly clamps are placed across the infundibulopelvic ligament through the window in the broad ligament.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Developing the Bladder Flap
The bladder flap is further developed by lifting the anterior peritoneum and retracting the uterus cephalad to expose the bladder reflection and enter the vesicocervical space (Fig. 8). This space can be developed bluntly if there is no scarring from previous surgery or adhesive disease. Otherwise, sharp dissection in the midline is recommended. Excessive dissection in the anterolateral direction may disrupt the bladder pillars (vesicouterine ligaments) and cause unnecessary bleeding. Care should also be taken not to cut into the cervix when dissecting free the bladder, because this also creates extra bleeding. If the bladder is densely adherent to the cervix in the midline, the lateral areolar spaces can be developed approaching the midline to help define the appropri
INTRODUCTIONHysterectomy is the second most common major surgical procedure performed in the United States.1 Over one third of women in this country have undergone a hysterectomy by the age of 60.2 The technique and route of delivery of the uterus depend on a combination of factors, including the anticipated pathology, the patient's body habitus, the degree of pelvic relaxation, the need for concurrent abdominal and vaginal procedures, and the expertise of the surgeon. The abdominal hysterectomy is a basic component in the armamentarium of any pelvic surgeon. A standard approach with emphasis on principles of surgical technique is presented.TECHNIQUEPreparing the Surgical FieldThe operation is performed with the patient in the supine position. Some surgeons prefer a modified lithotomy position using Allen universal stirrups to allow potential access to the vagina and closer proximity of a second assistant. A pelvic exam under anesthesia is routinely performed. This exam further delineates the existing pathology and may help with the selection of the type of incision. It also provides the examiner with immediate feedback on interpreting abnormal findings. The vagina and urethra should be prepped and a Foley catheter placed for straight drainage. A low transverse abdominal incision can be used if cancer is not suspected. This incision can be converted to a Maylard or Cherney incision if increased exposure is necessary. In cases of known or suspected malignancy, a vertical incision is preferred to allow increased exposure to the upper abdomen and improved visualization for appropriate biopsies and node dissection.When the surgeon enters the peritoneal cavity, the upper abdomen is explored by visualization and palpation to identify any adhesions or masses. A systematic check includes the liver edge, gallbladder, stomach, omentum, small bowel, colon, kidneys, and paraaortic lymph node chain. Any adhesions are released to provide adequate exposure to the pelvic anatomy. The Trendelenburg position assists in maintaining the bowel out of the operative field.The Balfour retractor is placed. Care should be taken that the ends of the blades do not rest heavily on the psoas muscle because the femoral and genitofemoral nerves can be compressed. The bowel is lifted out of the cul-de-sac with the operator's right hand. The left hand is then used to position the edge of an opened laparotomy pad under the suspended bowel. This laparotomy pad is then draped across the bowel, covering it from right to left gutters like an apron, with the remaining edge tucked under the anterior abdominal wall. A rolled laparotomy pad is then placed immediately laterally in each gutter and pushed directly cephalad to ensure that no bowel escapes down these lateral margins. An upper blade is attached to the Balfour to maintain this position. This blade should be flat and perpendicular to the abdominal wall and not allowed to rest on the aorta and vena cava. A wide, curved Deaver retractor is used to hold back the bladder. This can be held by an assistant and moved from right to left to assist with visualization on each side as the hysterectomy progresses.The Round and Broad LigamentsA Kelly clamp is placed immediately lateral to the uterus at each cornua and incorporates the isthmic portion of the fallopian tube and the utero-ovarian ligament within its grasp. Bilateral clamps in this position will allow for elevation, traction, and rotation of the uterus, which will aid in visualization and dissection. The round ligament is grasped with a Kocher clamp midway between the uterus and the internal inguinal ring. A transfixion suture of 2-0 delayed absorbable suture is placed through the distal portion of the round ligament and tagged (Fig. 1). A second suture and/or large hemoclip may be placed across the proximal portion of the round ligament to prevent back-bleeding. The round ligament is transsected and the anterior leaf of the broad ligament is incised toward the level of the internal cervical os with Metzenbaum scissors. This will begin the development of the bladder flap (Fig. 2). The posterior leaf of the broad ligament may also be incised parallel to the infundibulopelvic ligament toward the side wall. This exposure is particularly helpful if the ovaries are to be removed. With traction of the uterus away from the side wall and lifting the tagged, round ligament upward and lateral, the operator can separate the areolar tissue within the broad ligament by spreading the index and middle fingers in a scissorlike manner.Fig. 1 ตุที่ ระบุ clamped และ transfixion sutured ขั้นตอนนี้เริ่มมดลูก และช่วยให้ทางเข้ากว้างเอ็นและ retroperitoneum (JD ทอมป์สัน ร็อค JA: ของ Telinde วิธีปฏิบัติตนภายนรีเวชวิทยา ed 7, Ch 29 ฟิลาเดลเฟีย เจ Lippincott, 1992)Fig. 2 ใบแอนทีเรียร์ของเอ็นกว้างเป็น incised ต่อระดับของระบบปฏิบัติการภายในกับกรรไกร Metzenbaum พบแผลทวิภาคีใน midline (JD ทอมป์สัน ร็อค JA: ของ Telinde วิธีปฏิบัติตนภายนรีเวชวิทยา ed 7, Ch 29 ฟิลาเดลเฟีย เจ Lippincott, 1992)The ureter is visualized on the medial leaf of the broad ligament in this space. If adhesive disease impedes visualization here, the ureter can be identified at the pelvic brim where it crosses the iliac vessels at their bifurcation. The ureter can then be followed downward through its course to ensure that further dissection does not compromise its integrity (Fig. 3). The ureter appears as a white, nonpulsatile tubular structure with fine blood vessels noted longitudinally on the adventitia. It is best identified by visualization of its characteristic peristaltic activity. It can also be palpated by the operator's thumb being placed deep on the intraperitoneal side of the posterior medial leaf of the broad ligament and the index finger deep on the retroperitoneal side of this medial leaf. As the operator holds the index finger and thumb together with the peritoneum trapped between and moves upward, the ureter will be palpable and demonstrates a “rubber band—like” twang as released. This palpation can then guide the dissection to achieve adequate visualization.Fig. 3. The ureter crosses the iliac vessels at their bifurcation, continues below the infundibulopelvic ligament on the posterior medial leaf of the broad ligament, and crosses under the uterine vessels before turning anterior and medially to enter the bladder.
The Ovary and Fallopian Tube
The avascular portion of the posterior broad ligament lateral to the uterus, anterior to the ureter, and posteromedial to the infundibulopelvic ligament is identified and tented upward with the index finger (Fig. 4). It can be bluntly or, if thickened, sharply entered. If the ovary and fallopian tube are not being removed, this window allows isolation of the proximal fallopian tube and utero-ovarian ligament. These structures are clamped with two Kelly clamps close to the uterus with care being taken that the lateral clamp does not impinge on the ovarian capsule. The Kelly clamp on the uterus can be replaced so that its tip extends into the window. The pedicle is cut, leaving two clamps laterally (Fig. 5). This allows the pedicle to be free tied as one clamp is released, then transfixion sutured around the second clamp (Fig. 6).
Fig. 4. The posterior broad ligament is tented upward in the avascular space lateral to the uterus, posteromedial to the adnexa and anterior to the ureter. This space is entered to create a window in the broad ligament.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Fig. 5. If the ovary and fallopian tube are to be conserved, two Kelly clamps are placed across the fallopian tube and utero-ovarian ligament in close proximity to the uterus. The Kelly clamp at the uterine cornua is advanced so that its tip extends into the window.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Fig. 6. A free tie is placed with removal of the lateral clamp.A transfixion suture is then placed beneath the second clamp.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
When the ovary and fallopian tube are to be removed, the window produced in the broad ligament serves to isolate the infundibulopelvic ligament, which is clamped with two Kelly clamps above the level of the ureter. The most distal clamp is placed first. A third clamp immediately adjacent to the ovary and fallopian tube prevents back-bleeding (Fig. 7). The ligament is cut above the two distal clamps. The distal end is free tied and then transfixion sutured with 2-0 delayed absorbable suture. The proximal end is also tied and may be suspended from the Kelly clamp on the uterus to prevent the ovary and tube from obstructing the operative field.
Fig. 7. If the ovary and fallopian tube are to be removed, three Kelly clamps are placed across the infundibulopelvic ligament through the window in the broad ligament.(Thompson JD, Rock JA: Telinde's Operative Gynecology, 7th ed, Ch 29. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1992)
Developing the Bladder Flap
The bladder flap is further developed by lifting the anterior peritoneum and retracting the uterus cephalad to expose the bladder reflection and enter the vesicocervical space (Fig. 8). This space can be developed bluntly if there is no scarring from previous surgery or adhesive disease. Otherwise, sharp dissection in the midline is recommended. Excessive dissection in the anterolateral direction may disrupt the bladder pillars (vesicouterine ligaments) and cause unnecessary bleeding. Care should also be taken not to cut into the cervix when dissecting free the bladder, because this also creates extra bleeding. If the bladder is densely adherent to the cervix in the midline, the lateral areolar spaces can be developed approaching the midline to help define the appropri
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