Policies of privatization, liberalization and accession to the WTO or EU in the 1980s to 2000s were followed by a wave
of investments by food manufacturers and retailers.
Combined with rising urbanization and changes in consumer preferences and purchasing power, these have led to a growth of modern food processing and retailing which often have requirements or industry standards for quality and safety built on traceability and certification. Conformity with labour and environmental standards may also be required, with compliance costs proportionately much higher for smallholders.