This criterion was imposed to exclude companies that managed earnings within GAAP and to reduce the likelihood that companies would be considered manipulators in the sample on the basis of media articles based on self-serving rumors by interested parties. For example, articles by Hector (1989) and Khalaf (1992) discussed changes in “useful lives” at General Motors Corporation, unusual charges at General Electric Company, and short sellers’ interest in Advanta Corporation. None of the companies was subsequently required to reverse the effects of its accounting decisions; thus,
these companies were excluded from the manipulator sample. Similarly, some companies—for example, Battle Mountain Gold Company and Blockbuster Entertainment—voluntarily changed their accounting choices or estimates as a result of
pressure from the investment community. Because their accounting choices were initially within GAAP and they did not restate earnings, they also were not considered manipulators. These eliminations reduced the news media sample by 15 companies.