the environment, and open and spontaneous styles of life. 7 In part, they have been represented by totally new parties (among others, the Greens); in part, they have found their way into established democratic socialist parties where they have often represented a minority voice. At the other end of the spectrum, anti-immigrant parties, such as France’s National Front, have raised issues of race and nationalism that had been thought dead since the Second World War. Outside of Europe, militant Islam, with its claims for a religious state, has raised a qualitatively different kind of challenge in many states of North Africa, the Mideast, and South Asia. Faith-based politics, based on divine will, is intense and difficult to compromise. This has proved true of both militant Islam and the religious strand of American conservatism. We will explore the political impact of fundamentalist religion in more detail in the next section.