Determinants of growth and height Edit
Median (50th percentile) growth curves for male and female 0–20 years.
The study of height is known as auxology.[7] Growth has long been recognized as a measure of the health of individuals, hence part of the reasoning for the use of growth charts. For individuals, as indicators of health problems, growth trends are tracked for significant deviations and growth is also monitored for significant deficiency from genetic expectations. Genetics is a major factor in determining the height of individuals, though it is far less influential in regard to differences among populations. Average height is relevant to the measurement of the health and wellness (standard of living and quality of life) of populations.[8] Attributed as a significant reason for the trend of increasing height in parts of Europe are the egalitarian populations where proper medical care and adequate nutrition are relatively equally distributed.[9] Changes in diet (nutrition) and a general rise in quality of health care and standard of living are the cited factors in the Asian populations. Average height in the United States has remained essentially stagnant since the 1980s even as the genetic and ethnic background of residents has shifted. Malnutrition including chronic undernutrition and acute malnutrition is known to have caused stunted growth in various populations.[10] This has been seen in North Korea, parts of Africa, certain historical Europe, and other populations.[11] Developing countries such as Guatemala have rates of stunting in children under 5 living as high as 82.2% in Totonicapán, and 49.8% nation-wide.[12]
Height measurements are by nature subject to statistical sampling errors even for a single individual. In a clinical situation, height measurements are seldom taken more often than once per office visit, which may mean sampling taking place a week to several months apart. The smooth 50th percentile male and female growth curves illustrated above are aggregate values from thousands of individuals sampled at ages from birth to age 20. In reality, a single individual's growth curve shows large upward and downward spikes. Partly due to actual differences in growth velocity, and partly due to small measurement errors. For example, a typical measurement error of plus or minus 0.5 cm may completely nullify 0.5 cm of actual growth resulting in either a "negative" 0.5 cm growth (due to overestimation in the previous visit combined with underestimation in the latter), up to a 1.5 cm growth (the first visit underestimating and the second visit overestimating) in the same elapsed time period between measurements. Note there is a discontinuity in the growth curves at age 2, which reflects the difference in recumbent length (with the child on his or her back), used in measuring infants and toddlers and standing height typically measured from age 2 onwards.
Sir Francis Galton's (1889) data showing the relationship between offspring height (928 individuals) as a function of mean parent height (205 sets of parents). The correlation was 0.57.
Height, like other phenotypic traits, is determined by a combination of genetics and environmental factors. A child's height based on parental heights is subject to regression toward the mean, therefore extremely tall or short parents will likely have correspondingly taller or shorter offspring, but their offspring will also likely be closer to average height than the parents themselves. Genetic potential and a number of hormones, minus illness, is a basic determinant for height. Other factors include the genetic response to external factors such as diet, exercise, environment, and life circumstances. Humans grow fastest (other than in the womb) as infants and toddlers, rapidly declining from a maximum at birth to roughly age 2, tapering to a slowly declining rate, and then during the pubertal growth spurt, a rapid rise to a second maximum (at around 11–12 years for female, and 13–14 years for male), followed by a steady decline to zero. On average, female growth speed trails off to zero at about 15 or 16 years, whereas the male curve continues for approximately 3 more years, going to zero at about 18–20. These are also critical periods where stressors such as malnutrition (or even severe child neglect) have the greatest effect.
Moreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical period and pregnancy, has a role. A healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide optimal prenatal conditions.[11] The pregnant mother's health is important as gestation is itself a critical period for an embryo/fetus, though some problems affecting height during this period are resolved by catch-up growth assuming childhood conditions are good. Thus, there is a cumulative generation effect such that nutrition and health over generations influences the height of descendants to varying degrees.
The age of the mother also has some influence on her child's height. Studies in modern times have observed a gradual increase in height with maternal age, though these early studies suggest that trend is due to various socio-economic situations that select certain demographics as being more likely to have a first birth early in the mother's life.[13][14][15] These same studies show that children born to a young mother are more likely to have below-average educational and behavioural development, again suggesting an ultimate cause of resources and family status rather than a purely biological explanation.[14][15]
The precise relationship between genetics and environment is complex and uncertain. Differences in human height is 60%–80% heritable, according to several twin studies[16] and has been considered polygenic since the Mendelian-biometrician debate a hundred years ago. A genome-wide association (GWA) study of more than 180,000 individuals has identified hundreds of genetic variants in at least 180 loci associated with adult human height.[17] The number of individuals have since been expanded to 253,288 individuals and the number of genetic variants identified is 697 in 423 genetic loci.[18] In a separate study of body proportion using sitting-height ratio, it reports that these 697 variants can be partitioned into 3 distinct classes, (1) variants that primarily determine leg length, (2) variants that primarily determine head and/or torso length, or (3) variants that affect overall body size, i.e. have no effect on body proportion, which gives insights into the biological mechanisms underlying how these 697 genetic variants affect overall height.[19]
The effect of environment on height is illustrated by studies performed by anthropologist Barry Bogin and coworkers of Guatemala Mayan children living in the United States. In the early 1970s, when Bogin first visited Guatemala, he observed that Mayan Indian men averaged only 157.5 centimetres (5 ft 2 in) in height and the women averaged 142.2 centimetres (4 ft 8 in). Bogin took another series of measurements after the Guatemalan Civil War had erupted, during which up to a million Guatemalans had fled to the United States. He discovered that Maya refugees, who ranged from six to twelve years old, were significantly taller than their Guatemalan counterparts.[20] By 2000, the American Maya were 10.24 cm (4.03 in) taller than the Guatemalan Maya of the same age, largely due to better nutrition and health care.[21] Bogin also noted that American Maya children had a significantly lower sitting height ratio, (i.e., relatively longer legs, averaging 7.02 cm (2.76 in) longer) than the Guatemalan Maya.[21][22]
The Nilotic peoples of Sudan such as the Shilluk and Dinka have been described as some of the tallest in the world. Dinka Ruweng males investigated by Roberts in 1953–54 were on average 181.3 centimetres (5 ft 11 1⁄2 in) tall, and Shilluk males averaged 182.6 centimetres (6 ft 0 in).[23] The Nilotic people are characterized as having long legs, narrow bodies and short trunks, an adaptation to hot weather.[24] However, male Dinka and Shilluk refugees measured in 1995 in Southwestern Ethiopia were on average only 1.764 m and 1.726 m tall, respectively.[25]
In Tibet, the khampas are known for their great height. Khampa males are on average 180 cm tall (5 ft 11 in).[26] Anthropologist Michael Peissel described the Khampa in 1964: "The Khampas stood a good six feet in height."[27]
The people of the Dinaric Alps (South Slavs) are on record as being the tallest in the world, with a male average height of 185.6 cm (6 ft 1.1 in) and female average height of 170.9 cm (5 ft 7.3 in).
แก้ไขดีเทอร์มิแนนต์ของการเจริญเติบโตและความสูงมัธยฐาน (50 percentile) เส้นโค้งการเจริญเติบโตสำหรับชาย และหญิง 0 – 20 ปีThe study of height is known as auxology.[7] Growth has long been recognized as a measure of the health of individuals, hence part of the reasoning for the use of growth charts. For individuals, as indicators of health problems, growth trends are tracked for significant deviations and growth is also monitored for significant deficiency from genetic expectations. Genetics is a major factor in determining the height of individuals, though it is far less influential in regard to differences among populations. Average height is relevant to the measurement of the health and wellness (standard of living and quality of life) of populations.[8] Attributed as a significant reason for the trend of increasing height in parts of Europe are the egalitarian populations where proper medical care and adequate nutrition are relatively equally distributed.[9] Changes in diet (nutrition) and a general rise in quality of health care and standard of living are the cited factors in the Asian populations. Average height in the United States has remained essentially stagnant since the 1980s even as the genetic and ethnic background of residents has shifted. Malnutrition including chronic undernutrition and acute malnutrition is known to have caused stunted growth in various populations.[10] This has been seen in North Korea, parts of Africa, certain historical Europe, and other populations.[11] Developing countries such as Guatemala have rates of stunting in children under 5 living as high as 82.2% in Totonicapán, and 49.8% nation-wide.[12]วัดความสูงตามธรรมชาติอาจมีการสุ่มตัวอย่างสถิติข้อผิดพลาดแม้แต่บุคคลเดียวกัน ในสถานการณ์ทางคลินิก ความสูงที่วัดเป็นค่อยถ่ายบ่อยเกินครั้งต่อไปสำนักงาน ซึ่งอาจหมายถึง การสุ่มตัวอย่างการทำสัปดาห์ถึงหลายเดือนกัน Percentile 50 เรียบโค้งเจริญเติบโตของเพศชาย และเพศหญิงที่แสดงข้างต้นเป็นค่ารวมจากพันบุคคลตัวอย่างที่อายุจากเกิดถึงอายุ 20 ในความเป็นจริง เส้นโค้งการเจริญเติบโตของแต่ละบุคคลเดียวแสดง spikes ที่ใหญ่ขึ้น และลง ส่วนหนึ่งเนื่องจากแตกจริงเจริญเติบโตเร็ว และบางส่วนเนื่อง จากข้อผิดพลาดในการวัดขนาดเล็ก ตัวอย่าง การประเมินโดยทั่วไปข้อผิดพลาดของบวก หรือ ลบ 0.5 cm อาจสมบูรณ์ลบล้าง 0.5 ซม.โตจริงเกิดใน 0.5 cm "ลบ" การเจริญเติบโต (เพราะ overestimation ในเยี่ยมชมก่อนหน้านี้กับ underestimation ในหลัง), ถึงเติบโต 1.5 ซม. (เราไปครั้งแรกและ overestimating ไปสอง) ในระยะเวลาที่ผ่านไปเหมือนกันระหว่างวัด สังเกตมีโฮในเส้นโค้งการเจริญเติบโตที่อายุ 2 ซึ่งสะท้อนให้เห็นถึงความแตกต่างของความยาว recumbent (กับลูกของเขา หรือเธอกลับ), ใช้ในวัดทารกและเด็กวัยหัดเดิน และยืนความสูงโดยทั่วไป วัดจากอายุ 2 เป็นต้นไปSir Francis Galton ข้อมูล (1889) แสดงความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างความสูงของลูกหลาน (928 บุคคล) เป็นฟังก์ชันของความสูงเฉลี่ยหลัก (205 ชุดของผู้ปกครอง) สหสัมพันธ์เป็น 0.57ความสูง เช่นลักษณะไทป์อื่น ๆ เป็นไปตามปัจจัยแวดล้อมและพันธุศาสตร์ ความสูงของเด็กตามความสูงโดยผู้ปกครองจึงต้องถดถอยไปยังค่าเฉลี่ย สูงมาก หรือผู้ปกครองโดยจะมีลูกหลานจำนวนสูง หรือเตี้ย แต่ลูกหลานของพวกเขายังมีแนวโน้มจะใกล้ชิดกับความสูงเฉลี่ยกว่าพ่อแม่ตัวเอง ศักยภาพทางพันธุกรรมและฮอร์โมน เจ็บป่วย ลบจำนวนเป็นดีเทอร์มิแนนต์เป็นพื้นฐานสำหรับความสูง ปัจจัยอื่น ๆ รวมถึงการตอบสนองทางพันธุกรรมกับปัจจัยภายนอกเช่นสถานการณ์อาหาร ออกกำลังกาย สิ่งแวดล้อม และชีวิต มนุษย์เติบโตเร็วที่สุด (อื่น ๆ มากกว่าในครรภ์) เป็นทารกและเด็กวัยหัดเดิน ลงอย่างรวดเร็วสูงสุดที่เกิดประมาณอายุ 2 เรียวอัตราลดช้าลง แล้ว ระหว่าง spurt pubertal เติบโต การเพิ่มขึ้นอย่างรวดเร็วสูงสุดที่สอง (ที่เพศหญิงประมาณ 11 – 12 ปี 13 – 14 ปีชาย), ตาม ด้วยมั่นคงลดลงเป็นศูนย์ โดยเฉลี่ย ความเร็วในการเจริญเติบโตของเพศหญิงแนวออกเป็นศูนย์ที่เกี่ยวกับ 15 หรือ 16 ปี ขณะโค้งชายยังคงอยู่ประมาณ 3 ปีขึ้นไป ไปยังศูนย์ที่เกี่ยวกับ 18-20 เหล่านี้ยังมีรอบระยะเวลาสำคัญที่ลดเช่นขาดสารอาหาร (หรือละเลยแม้รุนแรงเด็ก) มีผลมากที่สุดMoreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical period and pregnancy, has a role. A healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide optimal prenatal conditions.[11] The pregnant mother's health is important as gestation is itself a critical period for an embryo/fetus, though some problems affecting height during this period are resolved by catch-up growth assuming childhood conditions are good. Thus, there is a cumulative generation effect such that nutrition and health over generations influences the height of descendants to varying degrees.The age of the mother also has some influence on her child's height. Studies in modern times have observed a gradual increase in height with maternal age, though these early studies suggest that trend is due to various socio-economic situations that select certain demographics as being more likely to have a first birth early in the mother's life.[13][14][15] These same studies show that children born to a young mother are more likely to have below-average educational and behavioural development, again suggesting an ultimate cause of resources and family status rather than a purely biological explanation.[14][15]The precise relationship between genetics and environment is complex and uncertain. Differences in human height is 60%–80% heritable, according to several twin studies[16] and has been considered polygenic since the Mendelian-biometrician debate a hundred years ago. A genome-wide association (GWA) study of more than 180,000 individuals has identified hundreds of genetic variants in at least 180 loci associated with adult human height.[17] The number of individuals have since been expanded to 253,288 individuals and the number of genetic variants identified is 697 in 423 genetic loci.[18] In a separate study of body proportion using sitting-height ratio, it reports that these 697 variants can be partitioned into 3 distinct classes, (1) variants that primarily determine leg length, (2) variants that primarily determine head and/or torso length, or (3) variants that affect overall body size, i.e. have no effect on body proportion, which gives insights into the biological mechanisms underlying how these 697 genetic variants affect overall height.[19]The effect of environment on height is illustrated by studies performed by anthropologist Barry Bogin and coworkers of Guatemala Mayan children living in the United States. In the early 1970s, when Bogin first visited Guatemala, he observed that Mayan Indian men averaged only 157.5 centimetres (5 ft 2 in) in height and the women averaged 142.2 centimetres (4 ft 8 in). Bogin took another series of measurements after the Guatemalan Civil War had erupted, during which up to a million Guatemalans had fled to the United States. He discovered that Maya refugees, who ranged from six to twelve years old, were significantly taller than their Guatemalan counterparts.[20] By 2000, the American Maya were 10.24 cm (4.03 in) taller than the Guatemalan Maya of the same age, largely due to better nutrition and health care.[21] Bogin also noted that American Maya children had a significantly lower sitting height ratio, (i.e., relatively longer legs, averaging 7.02 cm (2.76 in) longer) than the Guatemalan Maya.[21][22]
The Nilotic peoples of Sudan such as the Shilluk and Dinka have been described as some of the tallest in the world. Dinka Ruweng males investigated by Roberts in 1953–54 were on average 181.3 centimetres (5 ft 11 1⁄2 in) tall, and Shilluk males averaged 182.6 centimetres (6 ft 0 in).[23] The Nilotic people are characterized as having long legs, narrow bodies and short trunks, an adaptation to hot weather.[24] However, male Dinka and Shilluk refugees measured in 1995 in Southwestern Ethiopia were on average only 1.764 m and 1.726 m tall, respectively.[25]
In Tibet, the khampas are known for their great height. Khampa males are on average 180 cm tall (5 ft 11 in).[26] Anthropologist Michael Peissel described the Khampa in 1964: "The Khampas stood a good six feet in height."[27]
The people of the Dinaric Alps (South Slavs) are on record as being the tallest in the world, with a male average height of 185.6 cm (6 ft 1.1 in) and female average height of 170.9 cm (5 ft 7.3 in).
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