1. Introduction
Chromium (Cr) is a naturally occurring heavy metal found in rocks, volcanic dust and gases, soils as well as plants and animals. Chromium compounds are used in paints, metal finishes, and stainless steel. Increased usage of hexavalent chromium (CrVI) and its improper disposal lead to various health hazards [1] and [2]. However, chromium in a small amount is considered an important nutrient responsible for carbohydrate metabolism [3].
Chromium is present in two forms: trivalent Cr(III) which is poorly transported across membranes and hexavalent Cr(VI) can readily cross cellular membranes. Inside the cell, the hexavalent form is reduced to the trivalent form. This biotransformation process reduces the toxicity because the trivalent form does not cross cellular membrane rapidly. The trivalent form complexes with intracellular macromolecules, these toxic compounds are responsible for many toxic and mutagenic effects of chromium, not biodegradable and accumulate in the environment [4] and [5].
Hexavalent chromium usually linked with oxygen forming strong oxidizing agent that is widely known to cause allergic dermatitis as well as toxic and carcinogenic effects in humans and animals [6]. The fate of chromium in the environment is dependent on its oxidation state. Hexavalent chromium primarily enters the cells and undergoes metabolic reduction to trivalent chromium, resulting in the formation of reactive oxygen species together with oxidative tissue damage and a cascade of cellular events [7].
Occupational exposure to Cr is found among approximately half a million industrial workers worldwide. Also, water contaminated with hexavalent chromium is a worldwide problem, as it is the major route of chromium exposure for the general population [8] and [9]. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is a soluble hexavalent chromium compound that is widely used in several industries [10].
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is as an essential micronutrient that performs important metabolic function in human [11]. It also acts as a biological antioxidant by donating an electron to free radical species, such as tocopherol radical, thereby interrupting the radical chain reaction in biological membranes [12].
Vitamin C has been reported to function as a major reductant of Cr(VI) in animals and cell culture systems [13]. From these points it was important to evaluate the effect of potassium dichromate on the thyroid gland of rats and the possible protective effect of vitamin C.lumen. Disruption of the apical and basal membranes of some thyrocytes, flattened hyperchromatic nuclei, dilated RER and swollen degenerated mitochondria were also noted. Immunohistochemically, there were changes in the immune expression of Bcl2 in the cytoplasm of thyrocytes. Vitamin C supplemented group showed partial improvement of the previous changes. So, potassium dichromate induced structural changes in the thyroid follicular cells that were partially improved by vitamin C supplementation.
1. Introduction
Chromium (Cr) is a naturally occurring heavy metal found in rocks, volcanic dust and gases, soils as well as plants and animals. Chromium compounds are used in paints, metal finishes, and stainless steel. Increased usage of hexavalent chromium (CrVI) and its improper disposal lead to various health hazards [1] and [2]. However, chromium in a small amount is considered an important nutrient responsible for carbohydrate metabolism [3].
Chromium is present in two forms: trivalent Cr(III) which is poorly transported across membranes and hexavalent Cr(VI) can readily cross cellular membranes. Inside the cell, the hexavalent form is reduced to the trivalent form. This biotransformation process reduces the toxicity because the trivalent form does not cross cellular membrane rapidly. The trivalent form complexes with intracellular macromolecules, these toxic compounds are responsible for many toxic and mutagenic effects of chromium, not biodegradable and accumulate in the environment [4] and [5].
Hexavalent chromium usually linked with oxygen forming strong oxidizing agent that is widely known to cause allergic dermatitis as well as toxic and carcinogenic effects in humans and animals [6]. The fate of chromium in the environment is dependent on its oxidation state. Hexavalent chromium primarily enters the cells and undergoes metabolic reduction to trivalent chromium, resulting in the formation of reactive oxygen species together with oxidative tissue damage and a cascade of cellular events [7].
Occupational exposure to Cr is found among approximately half a million industrial workers worldwide. Also, water contaminated with hexavalent chromium is a worldwide problem, as it is the major route of chromium exposure for the general population [8] and [9]. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is a soluble hexavalent chromium compound that is widely used in several industries [10].
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is as an essential micronutrient that performs important metabolic function in human [11]. It also acts as a biological antioxidant by donating an electron to free radical species, such as tocopherol radical, thereby interrupting the radical chain reaction in biological membranes [12].
Vitamin C has been reported to function as a major reductant of Cr(VI) in animals and cell culture systems [13]. From these points it was important to evaluate the effect of potassium dichromate on the thyroid gland of rats and the possible protective effect of vitamin C.lumen. Disruption of the apical and basal membranes of some thyrocytes, flattened hyperchromatic nuclei, dilated RER and swollen degenerated mitochondria were also noted. Immunohistochemically, there were changes in the immune expression of Bcl2 in the cytoplasm of thyrocytes. Vitamin C supplemented group showed partial improvement of the previous changes. So, potassium dichromate induced structural changes in the thyroid follicular cells that were partially improved by vitamin C supplementation.
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1. Introduction
Chromium (Cr) is a naturally occurring heavy metal found in rocks, volcanic dust and gases, soils as well as plants and animals. Chromium compounds are used in paints, metal finishes, and stainless steel. Increased usage of hexavalent chromium (CrVI) and its improper disposal lead to various health hazards [1] and [2]. However, chromium in a small amount is considered an important nutrient responsible for carbohydrate metabolism [3].
Chromium is present in two forms: trivalent Cr(III) which is poorly transported across membranes and hexavalent Cr(VI) can readily cross cellular membranes. Inside the cell, the hexavalent form is reduced to the trivalent form. This biotransformation process reduces the toxicity because the trivalent form does not cross cellular membrane rapidly. The trivalent form complexes with intracellular macromolecules, these toxic compounds are responsible for many toxic and mutagenic effects of chromium, not biodegradable and accumulate in the environment [4] and [5].
Hexavalent chromium usually linked with oxygen forming strong oxidizing agent that is widely known to cause allergic dermatitis as well as toxic and carcinogenic effects in humans and animals [6]. The fate of chromium in the environment is dependent on its oxidation state. Hexavalent chromium primarily enters the cells and undergoes metabolic reduction to trivalent chromium, resulting in the formation of reactive oxygen species together with oxidative tissue damage and a cascade of cellular events [7].
Occupational exposure to Cr is found among approximately half a million industrial workers worldwide. Also, water contaminated with hexavalent chromium is a worldwide problem, as it is the major route of chromium exposure for the general population [8] and [9]. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is a soluble hexavalent chromium compound that is widely used in several industries [10].
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is as an essential micronutrient that performs important metabolic function in human [11]. It also acts as a biological antioxidant by donating an electron to free radical species, such as tocopherol radical, thereby interrupting the radical chain reaction in biological membranes [12].
Vitamin C has been reported to function as a major reductant of Cr(VI) in animals and cell culture systems [13]. From these points it was important to evaluate the effect of potassium dichromate on the thyroid gland of rats and the possible protective effect of vitamin C.lumen. Disruption of the apical and basal membranes of some thyrocytes, flattened hyperchromatic nuclei, dilated RER and swollen degenerated mitochondria were also noted. Immunohistochemically, there were changes in the immune expression of Bcl2 in the cytoplasm of thyrocytes. Vitamin C supplemented group showed partial improvement of the previous changes. So, potassium dichromate induced structural changes in the thyroid follicular cells that were partially improved by vitamin C supplementation.
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