To conclude , the case studies in this volume demonstrate pedagogical variation in citizenship despite a strong state orientation. Approaches to teaching citizenship education require transformation and adaptation in order to fit the changing needs of students and their societies in changing political and social circumstances in modern Asia and the Pacific. As a result, hybridized pedagogical approaches have emerged, combining contextual and global considerations. Moreover, this variation shows the force of bottom-up approaches available in Asia-Pacific countries to balance top- down emphases from the official curriculum. For example, where the official curriculum emphasises democracy, teachers and students may choose to be conservative, or vice versa. In this way, there exists negotiation space, and in some cases, resistance between the planned and implemented curriculum. In Asian Pacific societies, it is pedagogies that both create and occupy this space, regardless of the political or social system.