As for a particle located on the flat bed , observe that the boundary condition (12) ensures that it will always move horizontally. Choosing the location below the wave trough as a starting point, the particle oscillates in a backward–forward–backward pattern with a net forward drift, mirroring the projection of the loop on the top of figure 5 to the flat bed.
These theoretical predictions were confirmed numerically [49] and experimentally [5, 63]. During this process it became apparent that the size of the particle drifts can be very small for specific wave characteristics. In particular, the experimental photographic evidence reproduced in [24, 57, 58], that seemed to indicate closed particle paths, corresponds to very small drift.
2.4. Basic properties of the pressure
Let us now show that, see [17], in the moving frame the normalized pressure P decreases horizontally away from the crest line towards the adjacent trough line, being strictly increasing with depth. More precisely,
in the closure of the open fluid region and in , except on the crest line x = 0 and on the trough lines , where Px = 0;
throughout the entire fluid domain.
In particular, the maximum of the pressure is attained at the point on the flat bed directly below the wave crest, while the minimum of the pressure is attained all along the free surface .
The first claim follows by the characterization of the sign of uq in the moving frame (see section 2.2) since combining the first component of (10) with (28) and (26) yields
To prove the second claim, let us introduce the function
Since u and v are harmonic and (9) as well as (11) hold, one can easily check by directly calculating that f is harmonic. The change of variables (22) being conformal, we infer that
is also harmonic. Using (26), (27), (9) and (11), we compute
Equation (38)
Since on the lower boundary of R, due to (12), (19) and (38), we have that
Equation (39)
On the lateral boundaries of the rectangle R, obtained as images of the trough lines under the conformal map (22), we know that v = 0 and (see section 2.2). Therefore (19) and (38) yield
Equation (40)
Let us now show that on the upper boundary of the rectangle R we have
Equation (41)
For this, multiplying both sides of the last relation in (17) by g and subsequently differentiating with respect to the x-variable, we get
using (13) as well as (9) and (11). Since for , division of the previous identity by leads us to
We know that and on for , the latter since on this part of the free surface
with the expression of uq obtained by combining (25), (27), (13), (9), and (11). The previous two displayed relations together with (19) yield
This is precisely the strict inequality in (41) for , due to (38) and (13). Since by (38) Fq is even in the q-variable, the validity of the strict inequality in (41) is also verified for . Continuity now confirms (41).
The inequalities (39), (40) and (41) for the boundary values of the harmonic function Fq ensure by the strong maximum principle that in R, that is
Equation (42)
On the other hand, in section 2.2 we established that
Using (9), (11) and (19), we infer from the above that
Equation (43)
Since in , as shown in section 2.2, the second component of (10) in combination with (42) and (43) yield
This proves the validity of the second claim throughout the open set . By symmetry, the inequality will also hold in . On the trough lines we have v = 0, so that the second component of (10) yields by (40) and (19), while for since this part of the crest line x = 0 is included in the rectangle R, and thus in view of (19) and the fact that throughout R. Since on the flat bed , the second component of (10) becomes there. As for the free surface , all along it the superharmonic function P attains its minimum in Ω, so that Hopf's maximum principle ensures that here as well. By periodicity holds throughout the fluid domain.
3. Discussion
The results presented in section 2 describe the basic qualitative features of the flow beneath a Stokes wave with no underlying currents. It is of interest to refine these results and also to investigate in detail the flow pattern in the case of wave–current interactions. In this section we survey some promising recent results in these directions and we specify a number of scenarios that are likely to occur, as indicated by numerical simulations and experimental data.
3.1. Some open problems for waves with no underlying current
For a better understanding of the flow pattern beneath a Stokes wave with no underlying current, the following aspects should be satisfactorily understood.
The monotonicity properties of the vertical velocity component v are unknown. Numerical simulations [7] suggest that v has a unique maximum along any streamline in , but a theoretical confirmation is not available.
While the results in section 2.2 show that the horizontal velocity component u is strictly decreasing along any streamline in , its monotonic behaviour in the vertical and horizontal directions is not yet clarified.
The horizontal and vertical accelerations are important flow characteristics and no results about their growth pattern are available for waves of large amplitude. For numerical simulations we refer to [7].
A more detailed theoretical analysis of the looping particle trajectories depicted in figure 5 should be within reach. One can prove (see [17]) that the drift of the particle (the distance from A to E, in figure 5) and the amplitude of the vertical oscillation of a particle (the distance from C to the horizontal line through A and E) are both strictly decreasing with increasing depth. The extent of the forward–backward oscillation of a particle (the distance from B to D) appears to also present this feature, but this fact has eluded a theoretical confirmation.
Concerning the pressure, it is of interest to investigate its monotonicity along streamlines in the moving frame. Also, the monotonicity of the dynamic pressure, defined as the difference between the pressure and the hydrostatic pressure, in the vertical and horizontal directions, but also along streamlines, is not clarified.
A special topic of interest concerns the wave of greatest height. It turns out that the particle path pattern depicted in figure 5 persists, as do those of the signs of u and v in the moving frame, see [11]. The approach presented in section 2 can not be implemented due to the failure of (19) at the wave crest, where u = c. Nevertheless, it is still relevant since the conclusions for the wave of greatest height can be obtained by a limiting procedure from those valid for waves of almost greatest height, and useful information about the boundary behaviour of the analytic map near the singular point at the wave crest can be extracted. Despite these similarities, there are unexpected features. At first sight, the fact that u = c and v = 0 at the wave crest might indicate that the wave crest is a stagnation point of the flow, so that a particle located there (in the physical frame) moves horizontally at the wave speed, remaining at the wave crest. However, the wave crest of a wave of greatest height is only an apparent stagnation point of the flow—no particle can rest there, see [11]. On the other hand, the question of the monotonicity properties of the pressure beneath a wave of greatest height has not been yet investigated. Also the aspects that are not fully understood for the flow beneath regular Stokes waves, listed above, are open for investigation in the context of the wave of greatest height.
3.2. State-of-the-art for wave–current interactions
For periodic two-dimensional travelling waves propagating at the surface of water with a flat bed in a flow with underlying currents, the flow pattern beneath the waves is to a large extent unexplored. Even the case of waves of small amplitude, setting in which perturbation results and linear theory are applicable, offers a few challenges.
The simplest setting is that of an irrotational flow, in which case the underlying current is uniform. While the behaviour of the sign of v and the montonocity properties of the pressure in the vertical and horizontal directions, discussed in section 2, remain unchanged, there is a significant change in the behaviour of the sign of u, namely, the curve that represents the level set in might be strongly deformed by the underlying current into a curve that no longer connects the free surface to the flat bed, but is now a curve that connects the free surface to the trough line or to the crest line. These possibilities trigger the appearance of new types of particle trajectories: below the lowest point of the lack of change of sign of u means that in the horizontal movement of a particle located there is no change of direction, so that the particle moves either in the direction of wave propagation (this will be the case for a favourable current) or opposite to it (for strong adverse currents), propagating as a vertical oscillation due to the change of sign of v. Moreover, in the region where a change of sign in u occcurs a closed particle path might appear at a specific depth. See [17] for theoretical results and [49] for numerical simulations. In addition to the open questions formulated in the absence of underlying currents in section 3.1, the most pressing point is the lack of criteria that specify the strength of the current that triggers the appearance of these new types of particle paths.
The hallmark of non-uniform underlying currents is the presence of vorticity: (11) no longer holds. Instead, we allow for non-zero vorticity in the flow beneath the surface waves. The vorticity of a particle is preserved as the particle moves about (see [10]). The simplest rotational setting is that of linearly sheared currents of constant nonzero vorticity, a setting that is regarded as appropriate for the description of tidal currents. These are the alternati
สำหรับอนุภาคที่ตั้งอยู่บนนอนแบน สังเกตว่า เงื่อนไขขอบเขต (12) ให้แน่ใจว่า มันจะย้ายในแนวนอน เลือกที่ตั้งอยู่ด้านล่างรางคลื่นเป็นจุดเริ่มต้น อนุภาค oscillates ในรูปแบบย้อนหลัง – ไป – ย้อนหลังกับการสุทธิไปข้างหน้าดริฟท์ มิเรอร์ฉายลูปด้านบนเลข 5 เตียงแบนคาดคะเนทฤษฎีเหล่านี้ได้เรียงตามตัวเลขยืนยัน [49] และ experimentally [5, 63] ระหว่างกระบวนการนี้ มันก็ชัดเจนว่า ขนาดของ drifts อนุภาคสามารถเล็ก ๆ ในลักษณะคลื่นเฉพาะ โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่ง ทดลองถ่ายหลักฐานการทำซ้ำใน [24, 57, 58], ที่ดูเหมือนจะระบุเส้นทางที่อนุภาคปิด ตรงกับดริฟท์ขนาดเล็กมาก2.4. พื้นฐานคุณสมบัติของความดันเราตอนนี้ดูที่ ดู [17], ในกรอบเคลื่อนความดันมาตรฐาน P ลดแนวจากหงอนบรรทัดต่อบรรทัดติดราง การเพิ่มความลึกอย่างเคร่งครัด ได้แม่นยำมาก ในการปิดเปิดของเหลวภาค และ ใน ยกเว้นบรรทัดเครสท์ x = 0 และ บนรางบรรทัด ตำแหน่ง Px = 0 ทั่วทั้งโดเมนของเหลวทั้งหมดโดยเฉพาะ ความดันสูงสุดคือบรรลุจุดบนเตียงแบนอยู่ต่ำกว่ายอดคลื่น ขณะขั้นต่ำความดันจะได้ทั้งหมดตามผิวฟรีร้องแรกตาม ด้วยคุณสมบัติของเครื่องของ uq ในเฟรมเคลื่อนไหว (ดูหัวข้อ 2.2) เนื่องจากการรวมส่วนประกอบแรก (10) ด้วย (28) และอัตราผลตอบแทน (26)การพิสูจน์สิทธิ์สอง เราแนะนำฟังก์ชันตั้งแต่ u และ v มีค่า และ (9) และค้างไว้ (11) หนึ่งสามารถตรวจสอบ โดยตรงคำนวณ f นั้นจะมีค่าได้ การเปลี่ยนแปลงของตัวแปร (22) conformal เรารู้ที่จะยังมีค่า ใช้ (26), (27), (9) และ (11), เราคำนวณสมการ (38)เนื่องจากบนขอบเขตล่างของ R เนื่องจาก (12), (19) และ (38), เราได้ที่สมการ (39)บนขอบด้านข้างของกรอบสี่เหลี่ยม R รับเป็นรูปของบรรทัดรางภายใต้แผน conformal (22), เรารู้ว่า v = 0 และ (ดูหัวข้อ 2.2) ดังนั้น (19) และผลผลิต (38)สมการ (40)เราตอนนี้แสดงว่าในขอบเขตบนของ R เรามีสมการ (41)สำหรับนี้ คูณทั้งสองด้านของความสัมพันธ์สุดท้ายใน (17) g และต่อมาความแตกต่างกับตัวแปร x เราได้รับใช้ (13) และ (9) และ (11) ตั้งแต่ ฝ่ายข้อมูลประจำตัวก่อนหน้านี้โดยเป้าหมายเราเรารู้ว่า และในการ หลังตั้งแต่บนผิวฟรีแห่งนี้กับค่าของ uq ได้รับโดยรวม (25), (27), (13), (9), และ (11) ทั้งสองก่อนหน้านี้แสดงความสัมพันธ์กับผลผลิต (19)นี่คือแม่นยำเข้มงวดความไม่เท่าเทียมกันใน (41),จาก (38) และ (13) ตั้งแต่ โดย Fq (38) คือแม้ใน q-ตัวแปร มีผลบังคับใช้ของความไม่เท่าเทียมกันอย่างเข้มงวดใน (41) จะยังตรวจสอบสำหรับการ ความต่อเนื่องขณะนี้ยืนยัน (41)ความเหลื่อมล้ำทาง (39), (40) และ (41) สำหรับค่าขอบเขตของฟังก์ชันมีค่า Fq ให้ โดยหลักการสูงสุดแข็งแกร่งใน R ที่ว่าEquation (42)On the other hand, in section 2.2 we established thatUsing (9), (11) and (19), we infer from the above thatEquation (43)Since in , as shown in section 2.2, the second component of (10) in combination with (42) and (43) yieldThis proves the validity of the second claim throughout the open set . By symmetry, the inequality will also hold in . On the trough lines we have v = 0, so that the second component of (10) yields by (40) and (19), while for since this part of the crest line x = 0 is included in the rectangle R, and thus in view of (19) and the fact that throughout R. Since on the flat bed , the second component of (10) becomes there. As for the free surface , all along it the superharmonic function P attains its minimum in Ω, so that Hopf's maximum principle ensures that here as well. By periodicity holds throughout the fluid domain.3. DiscussionThe results presented in section 2 describe the basic qualitative features of the flow beneath a Stokes wave with no underlying currents. It is of interest to refine these results and also to investigate in detail the flow pattern in the case of wave–current interactions. In this section we survey some promising recent results in these directions and we specify a number of scenarios that are likely to occur, as indicated by numerical simulations and experimental data.3.1. Some open problems for waves with no underlying currentFor a better understanding of the flow pattern beneath a Stokes wave with no underlying current, the following aspects should be satisfactorily understood.The monotonicity properties of the vertical velocity component v are unknown. Numerical simulations [7] suggest that v has a unique maximum along any streamline in , but a theoretical confirmation is not available.While the results in section 2.2 show that the horizontal velocity component u is strictly decreasing along any streamline in , its monotonic behaviour in the vertical and horizontal directions is not yet clarified.The horizontal and vertical accelerations are important flow characteristics and no results about their growth pattern are available for waves of large amplitude. For numerical simulations we refer to [7].A more detailed theoretical analysis of the looping particle trajectories depicted in figure 5 should be within reach. One can prove (see [17]) that the drift of the particle (the distance from A to E, in figure 5) and the amplitude of the vertical oscillation of a particle (the distance from C to the horizontal line through A and E) are both strictly decreasing with increasing depth. The extent of the forward–backward oscillation of a particle (the distance from B to D) appears to also present this feature, but this fact has eluded a theoretical confirmation.Concerning the pressure, it is of interest to investigate its monotonicity along streamlines in the moving frame. Also, the monotonicity of the dynamic pressure, defined as the difference between the pressure and the hydrostatic pressure, in the vertical and horizontal directions, but also along streamlines, is not clarified.A special topic of interest concerns the wave of greatest height. It turns out that the particle path pattern depicted in figure 5 persists, as do those of the signs of u and v in the moving frame, see [11]. The approach presented in section 2 can not be implemented due to the failure of (19) at the wave crest, where u = c. Nevertheless, it is still relevant since the conclusions for the wave of greatest height can be obtained by a limiting procedure from those valid for waves of almost greatest height, and useful information about the boundary behaviour of the analytic map near the singular point at the wave crest can be extracted. Despite these similarities, there are unexpected features. At first sight, the fact that u = c and v = 0 at the wave crest might indicate that the wave crest is a stagnation point of the flow, so that a particle located there (in the physical frame) moves horizontally at the wave speed, remaining at the wave crest. However, the wave crest of a wave of greatest height is only an apparent stagnation point of the flow—no particle can rest there, see [11]. On the other hand, the question of the monotonicity properties of the pressure beneath a wave of greatest height has not been yet investigated. Also the aspects that are not fully understood for the flow beneath regular Stokes waves, listed above, are open for investigation in the context of the wave of greatest height.
3.2. State-of-the-art for wave–current interactions
For periodic two-dimensional travelling waves propagating at the surface of water with a flat bed in a flow with underlying currents, the flow pattern beneath the waves is to a large extent unexplored. Even the case of waves of small amplitude, setting in which perturbation results and linear theory are applicable, offers a few challenges.
The simplest setting is that of an irrotational flow, in which case the underlying current is uniform. While the behaviour of the sign of v and the montonocity properties of the pressure in the vertical and horizontal directions, discussed in section 2, remain unchanged, there is a significant change in the behaviour of the sign of u, namely, the curve that represents the level set in might be strongly deformed by the underlying current into a curve that no longer connects the free surface to the flat bed, but is now a curve that connects the free surface to the trough line or to the crest line. These possibilities trigger the appearance of new types of particle trajectories: below the lowest point of the lack of change of sign of u means that in the horizontal movement of a particle located there is no change of direction, so that the particle moves either in the direction of wave propagation (this will be the case for a favourable current) or opposite to it (for strong adverse currents), propagating as a vertical oscillation due to the change of sign of v. Moreover, in the region where a change of sign in u occcurs a closed particle path might appear at a specific depth. See [17] for theoretical results and [49] for numerical simulations. In addition to the open questions formulated in the absence of underlying currents in section 3.1, the most pressing point is the lack of criteria that specify the strength of the current that triggers the appearance of these new types of particle paths.
The hallmark of non-uniform underlying currents is the presence of vorticity: (11) no longer holds. Instead, we allow for non-zero vorticity in the flow beneath the surface waves. The vorticity of a particle is preserved as the particle moves about (see [10]). The simplest rotational setting is that of linearly sheared currents of constant nonzero vorticity, a setting that is regarded as appropriate for the description of tidal currents. These are the alternati
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