poor proxies for output variables such as learning outcomes. This seems to be part of the problem in Indonesia. In spite of impressive enrolment figures, TIMSS test scores indicate than a majority of students who participated in the test had math skills below the defined basic proficiency level (World Bank 2010a), and less than 50 per cent of a cohort who had completed their final year of compulsory education (grade 9) attained functional literacy (Hanushek and Woessman 2008:654). TIMSS scores were also lower than other countries after adjusting for socioeconomic status; suggesting that school-related factors played a
large role in performance (World Bank 2010a). Numerous intervention studies have shown limited positive effects on student performance, signalling that the problem of poor student performance is more complicated than policymakers and researchers postulated (Suryadarma and Sumarto 2011). In this context, the role played by teachers is important. While teacher absenteeism rates have declined, survey results from unannounced visits to schools indicate they are still high (Us man et al. 2004; SMERU 2008, 2010; World Bank 2010a); many teachers are absent without clear reasons. Absenteeism tendstobe