2. Transport and sustainable urban development
In addition to the growth in the numbers of vehicles, the development of more
complex travel patterns (based on the car) has been seen as one of the major
limitations to the achievement of sustainable urban development. Conventionally,
there are seven key issues to be addressed if transport is to conform to the principles
of sustainable urban development (EFTE 1994, Banister 1997).
Sustainable urban development and transport 115
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(1) Congestion in many urban areas has been increasing in its duration and
intensity. On average, speeds in cities have been declining by ~ 5% per
decade (EFTE 1994) and the severity of congestion increases with city size
(Dasgupta 1993).
(2) Increasing air pollution has resulted in national air quality standards and
those recommended by the World Health Organisation (1997) being exceeded
in many cities. Air pollution aŒects health, impairs visibility and damages
buildings and local ecologyÐit reduces the quality of urban life.
(3) Tra c noise aŒects all city life. It is estimated by the OECD (1995) that ~ 15% of the population in developed countries is exposed to high levels of
noise, mainly generated by tra c. Disturbance is also caused by vibration, particularly from heavy lorries and night-time deliveries.
(4) Road safety is a major concern in cities and elsewhere. Worldwide, tra c
accidents result in 250 000 deaths and ~ 10 million injuries each year
(Downey 1995 ). The numbers of deaths from road accidents in the EU15 is
44 000 (1995). Accident rates are now declining in some countries (with high
levels of motorization), but increasing in others (with low levels of
motorization ). This is a very high cost `accepted’ by society.
(5) Degradation of urban landscapes through the construction of new roads and
transport facilities, the demolition of historic buildings and reductions in
open space. Transport contributes to the decaying urban fabric and neglect
of central city areas, as well as urban sprawl (Ewing 1997).
(6) Use of space by tra c facilitates the movement of the motorist, but reduces
the accessibility of others as transport routes become barriers, as parked
vehicles form obstacles for pedestrians, cyclists and those with disabilities. Car dependency results in tra c domination in urban areas.
(7) Global warming results from the use of fossil fuels. Transport now accounts
for 25% of CO2 emissions and this level is rising in relative terms as well as in
absolute quantities. Transport is almost wholly dependent on oil, and this is a
non-renewable energy source.
In addition, transport has also facilitated changes in the city, and these land-use
and development factors need to be added to the list above.
(8) Decentralization of cities has been facilitated by the car in combination with
e cientpublic transport.Thishasresultedina substantialgrowthintrip lengths
and the development of travel patterns that are dispersed rather than
concentrated on the city centre. This in turn increases car dependence and
reducesthe possibilitiesof promoting e cientpublic transport. So transporthas
acted both as the facilitator of change and as a limiting factor on its resolution.
(9) Development pressures have taken place around car accessible locations that
are not accessible to all people (including the edge city developments). The
spatial segregation of activities in urban areas again increases trip lengths and
has strong distributional consequences. High land and property prices are
symbolic of a buoyant economy, but they are also socially exclusive, particularly in terms of access to low cost city centre housing.
(10) Globalization and the relocation of industry (including the information
economy) have resulted in new patterns of distribution and the transport
intensity of freight has increased globally, regionally and locally.
116 D. Banister
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Sustainable urban development is dependent upon the city being a centre of
vitality, opportunity and wealth. Solutions are required that can encourage the most
e cient use of space and reduce the amount of additional land that can be allocated
to development. There is some agreement over the problems and to a great extent the
range of strategies available is familiar, but progress has been disappointingly slow in
integrating sustainability into everyday decisions.