Policy and education
Downwards to the regional and the local is inadequate (Bottery 2000 ) Global economic and political developments have brought forth supra-national institutions than perform many state functions in terms of policy development, but which function across nation states, rather than within them. In some cases, such as the European Union (EU) these institutions have been established for some time but are increasingly beginning to resemble traditional governmental institutions with developing constitutional arrangements. However, in other cases, institutions with inputs from nation states appear to be more disconnected from traditional state apparatuses, but can have a similar, indeed greater, impact on the development of policy
at a national and local level. Perhaps the most significant example of such a body is the World Trace Organization (WTO). Many of these institutions now have the capacity to exert significant influence on education policy in individual nation states (in the case of the WTO this is illustrated by the increasing emphasis on liberalizing trade in services as well as goods). In developing countries the influence of the World Bank on educational policy is equally significant. For the purpose of policy analysis the implications of this more complex conceptualization of the state is important because it implicitly acknowledges the greater potential for tension between, as well as within, different elements of the state.
A focus on state purposes and institutions is clearly important but can provide only a partial picture of what is being studied. It is also important to focus in practical terms on what the state does. How does state policy manifest itself? The tools of policy are of course not value neutral, and the way in which particular policies are enacted in particular contexts are intensely political issues. Policies cannot be disconnected from the socio-political environment within which they are framed. However, before exploring the sharply differing ways in which
ideological influences shape the application of policies in specific contexts is possible to identify a range of state activities that at a basic level are common features of state activity.
These can be considered to include the core activities of direct provision, taxation , subsidy and regulation. Although such activities are virtually a universal feature of state activity in any context, their application is not about purely mechanistic means 0f managing state resources. For example, the direct provision of education services within a system of public ownership has significant implications relating to matters of governance and control, whilst the use of taxation and subsidies not just determines what is provided, but crucially who pays and who benefits.
In an educational context the role of regulation is important because this determines the extent to which public service priorities may be exercised over those parts of the education system that are not formally within the public sector. In countries where education services are predon inantly provided by non-state bodies, such as trusts, commercial organiza ions or religious bodies, the role of regulation becomes correspondingly more important and, although private ownership may give an appearance of greater institutional autonomy, the use and application of regulatory frameworks can ensure an extremely tight coupling between the public state and private institutions.
Precisely how these policy approaches manifest themselves in practice in differing contexts highlights the need to develop models of policy analysis capable of reflecting cultural and historical contexts.
Studies of the state role in shaping policy development must be capable of reflecting co-existing, but opposing pressures. In the first instance it is important to recognize the crucial role played by societal culture in shaping state policy. These are the pressures that account for important policy differences between nation states as factors specific to local contexts exert a decisive influence on policy. However, whilst cultural influences will
shape policy in distinct and unique ways there are simultaneous pressures towards policy uniformity as global economic pressures in particular appear to drive common policies in differing cultural contexts. It is important, therefore, to explore in more detail what at first sight appear to be contradictory tendencies towards policy diversity and uniformity.
Recognizing the importance of cultural difference
Research and literature on the state is dominated by the influence of western scholars and as a consequence models capable of reflecting, for example, the experience of African and Asian contexts are limited (Apple 2003) At its worst, the conclusions of Anglo-US studies are simply extrapolated across diverse cultural contexts and their conclusions generalized with little qualification:
Anglo-American scholars continue to exert a disproportionate influence on theory, policy and practice. Thus a relatively small number of scholars and policy makers represening less than 8% of the world population purport to speak for the rest.
( Walker and Dimmock 2002: 15)
Such a situation provides a wholly inadequate basis for analysis. Rather, what is required are analyses of the state, and models of policy development, that recognize difference and are capable of reflecting cultural context. Such analyses also need to take account of the dynamic nature of state formations and the manner in which these shift and change over time – at times variously converging and diverging with state formations in other contexts. Walker and Dimmock (2002) distinguish between a range of societal cultures. These distinctions can form the basis of an analysis of differing state formations. For example, one distinction is between power distributed and power concentrated societies. In the latter, state formations are likely to be more centralized. with an expectation that policy at
institutional level will very closely represent the expectations of policy makers at the centre. One indication of the extent to which power is distributed is the extent to which
Policy and education
Downwards to the regional and the local is inadequate (Bottery 2000 ) Global economic and political developments have brought forth supra-national institutions than perform many state functions in terms of policy development, but which function across nation states, rather than within them. In some cases, such as the European Union (EU) these institutions have been established for some time but are increasingly beginning to resemble traditional governmental institutions with developing constitutional arrangements. However, in other cases, institutions with inputs from nation states appear to be more disconnected from traditional state apparatuses, but can have a similar, indeed greater, impact on the development of policy
at a national and local level. Perhaps the most significant example of such a body is the World Trace Organization (WTO). Many of these institutions now have the capacity to exert significant influence on education policy in individual nation states (in the case of the WTO this is illustrated by the increasing emphasis on liberalizing trade in services as well as goods). In developing countries the influence of the World Bank on educational policy is equally significant. For the purpose of policy analysis the implications of this more complex conceptualization of the state is important because it implicitly acknowledges the greater potential for tension between, as well as within, different elements of the state.
A focus on state purposes and institutions is clearly important but can provide only a partial picture of what is being studied. It is also important to focus in practical terms on what the state does. How does state policy manifest itself? The tools of policy are of course not value neutral, and the way in which particular policies are enacted in particular contexts are intensely political issues. Policies cannot be disconnected from the socio-political environment within which they are framed. However, before exploring the sharply differing ways in which
ideological influences shape the application of policies in specific contexts is possible to identify a range of state activities that at a basic level are common features of state activity.
These can be considered to include the core activities of direct provision, taxation , subsidy and regulation. Although such activities are virtually a universal feature of state activity in any context, their application is not about purely mechanistic means 0f managing state resources. For example, the direct provision of education services within a system of public ownership has significant implications relating to matters of governance and control, whilst the use of taxation and subsidies not just determines what is provided, but crucially who pays and who benefits.
In an educational context the role of regulation is important because this determines the extent to which public service priorities may be exercised over those parts of the education system that are not formally within the public sector. In countries where education services are predon inantly provided by non-state bodies, such as trusts, commercial organiza ions or religious bodies, the role of regulation becomes correspondingly more important and, although private ownership may give an appearance of greater institutional autonomy, the use and application of regulatory frameworks can ensure an extremely tight coupling between the public state and private institutions.
Precisely how these policy approaches manifest themselves in practice in differing contexts highlights the need to develop models of policy analysis capable of reflecting cultural and historical contexts.
Studies of the state role in shaping policy development must be capable of reflecting co-existing, but opposing pressures. In the first instance it is important to recognize the crucial role played by societal culture in shaping state policy. These are the pressures that account for important policy differences between nation states as factors specific to local contexts exert a decisive influence on policy. However, whilst cultural influences will
shape policy in distinct and unique ways there are simultaneous pressures towards policy uniformity as global economic pressures in particular appear to drive common policies in differing cultural contexts. It is important, therefore, to explore in more detail what at first sight appear to be contradictory tendencies towards policy diversity and uniformity.
Recognizing the importance of cultural difference
Research and literature on the state is dominated by the influence of western scholars and as a consequence models capable of reflecting, for example, the experience of African and Asian contexts are limited (Apple 2003) At its worst, the conclusions of Anglo-US studies are simply extrapolated across diverse cultural contexts and their conclusions generalized with little qualification:
Anglo-American scholars continue to exert a disproportionate influence on theory, policy and practice. Thus a relatively small number of scholars and policy makers represening less than 8% of the world population purport to speak for the rest.
( Walker and Dimmock 2002: 15)
Such a situation provides a wholly inadequate basis for analysis. Rather, what is required are analyses of the state, and models of policy development, that recognize difference and are capable of reflecting cultural context. Such analyses also need to take account of the dynamic nature of state formations and the manner in which these shift and change over time – at times variously converging and diverging with state formations in other contexts. Walker and Dimmock (2002) distinguish between a range of societal cultures. These distinctions can form the basis of an analysis of differing state formations. For example, one distinction is between power distributed and power concentrated societies. In the latter, state formations are likely to be more centralized. with an expectation that policy at
institutional level will very closely represent the expectations of policy makers at the centre. One indication of the extent to which power is distributed is the extent to which
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