The physical mechanism of the MMM technique is described in [113–116]. Under the effect of the earth field and mechanical load, self-magnetic-flux-leakage (SMFL) signals are generated in the stress-concentration zones where the tangential SMFL com- ponent Hp(x) reaches the maximum and the normal component Hp(y) changes polarity and has a zero value (see Fig. 6). The magnetic state is still retained even if the load is removed. Therefore, the stress concentration zones can be detected by measuring the SMFL signals on the surface of the structure. In the view of micro-structures, it is due to the irreversible orientation of magnetic domains caused by plastic deformation in the maximum stress-concentration zone.
The MMM technique has received extensive attention in engineering due to its advantages of easy-operation, time-saving and simple criteria. Various applications have been reported for diagnosing gas and oil pipelines, rails, turbine wheels, pressure vessel and others in [113]. Fig. 7 shows the testing results of normal component Hp(y) of three rings. The much lower ampli- tude of Hp(y) about the left ring means that it is under well- operation condition. However, the much higher amplitude of Hp(y) about the right one indicates that this one is seriously deteriorated. Moreover, the results also show the possible loca- tions of the stress-concentration (SC) zone as labeled in the right picture of Fig. 7.
The MMM technique is suitable for many engineering prac- tices. However, as a comparatively new test method, it still has a large room to be improved, as shown in the following section. One of the critical points is that more accurate and quantitative criteria are required. Up to now this technique is only used as a qualitative test method to determine the possible dangerous positions without quantitative results (e.g. stress-concentration intensity and residual fatigue life). In order to understand the physical mechanism and provide more information about the relations between the SMFL signal and structure characters, further studies have been recently performed.
Dong et al. [117] measured the SMFL signal for a series of tensile 18CrNiWA steels. The magnetic curve on the measured line shows a good linearity after loading. It rotates in the counterclockwise direction with the increase of the tensile stress during the elastic deformation, while gathers together in the plastic deformation stage. Wang et al. [118,119] performed numerical simulations of the SMFL signals using a revised magnetic-charge model where critical factors (e.g. the size, location and density of the local plastic zone and the lift-off values of the sensor) affecting the SMFL signal are presented. Yao et al. [120] experimentally confirmed that the SMFL signal and its gradient were significantly different during which Q235-steel specimens are deformed from elastic to plastic deformation under the tension, but no detectable change could be found during the whole compressive loading. They presented an explanation by considering the different movement modes of the domain structures subjected to tensile and compressive loads. Shi et al. [121] measured the SMFL signal and its gradient during which 18CrNi4A steel specimens were subjected to tension–tension fatigue loading where the effect of the local stress concentration factor on magnetic test results was especially considered. Leng et al. [122] tested the SMFL signal of 18CrNi4A steel specimens induced by cyclic bending stresses. The experimental results were qualitatively explained by the ‘‘effective field model’’ developed by Jiles [24]. Wilson et al. [123] introduced a novel three-axis magnetic sensor to confirm that the parallel component Bx is more related to the applied stress than the perpendicular component Bz. Roskosz and Gawrilenko [124] further presented experimental and numerical analyses of the SMFL distribution in loaded notched samples.
The MMM technique, although has received considerable attention over the last decade, still needs further studies, based on the following reasons: