1. Mobility is the most common adaptation response, such as relocation of a vulnerable population away from flood plains and landslide-prone slopes. Mobility may have extremely adverse social consequences if it is not planned as a part of an adaptation strategy due to the attendant social and political instability (such as when people are forced to relocate away from their livelihoods and social support system, or when they are unwanted in their new neighborhood).
2. Storage refers to pooling of risks across time. Storage strategies are relevant to individual households and communities. If adequate high-quality urban infrastructure is provided to a community, the need for storage can be substantially reduced. Storage is most useful to address food and water scarcity in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. Several sound practices for storage exist, such as the 72-hour self-sustaining food supply that is recommended for each family by the disaster management plans in several cities.
3. Diversification refers to pooling of risks across assets and resources of households and communities. Some good adaptation strategies include mixed land-use urban development plans so that the community has a mix of economic background, commercial activities, and employment opportunities.
4. Communal pooling refers to pooling of assets and resources, sharing of incomes from particular activities across households, or mobilizing the use of resources that are collectively held during times of scarcity. Communal pooling spreads risks across households. It can take place through better interaction between the various stakeholders or communities that are likely to be affected by a disaster. The most common communal pooling programs are those that aim to develop community-level support groups or self-help groups. Micro-finance programs that pool community resources and provide support on the basis of need are another example of adaptation through communal pooling.
5. Exchange is the most versatile adaptation response, and it is extremely important for urban areas. Exchange and market mechanisms, both formal and informal, are critical for economic development of the cities. Market-based or exchange adaptation includes provision of access to better and newer markets by the community. Programs that provide insurance to cover buildings that may be damaged due to earthquake or floods are examples of market based adaptation practice. Market-based approaches also allow a city to monetize their assets, which can then be used to raise resources for undertaking various developmental and disaster risk management programs. This adaptation response therefore enables the community and the city to share risks with the much wider global community.
An illustrative list of national, regional, and local mitigation policies and instruments that have been suggested is shown in Table 2.4, which also presents some examples of applications in the water, energy, transport, building, and industry sectors. It also presents key constraints and key opportunities that these measures, policies and instruments may cause when applied at city level.