Cross-cultural researchers Alves et al. (2006) found that "further theoretical and
empirical research is needed to investigate the practice of self-leadership in other
cultures" (p. 357). According to Alves et al. (2006), "Self-leadership has focused more on
effective performance of tasks rather than in the effective fulfillment of social and
cultural expectations" (p. 357). Alves et al. demonstrated a need for cross-cultural
research on "the role of communication and language in self-leadership. A better
understanding of self-leadership in other cultures requires us to consider thinking and
language as interrelated and mutually influenced concepts" (p. 357). Alves et al.
recommended conducting "country-by-country studies that develop an instrument of selfleadership
that is relevant and applicable to other cultures" (p. 357).