MANAGEMENT THEORY
Management or managing has four main elements. It is (1) a process comprised of interrelated social and technical func- tions and activities (2) that accomplishes organizational objec- tives, (3) achieves these objectives through use of people and other resources, and (4) does so in a formal organizational set- ting. In concert with managers at various levels, senior man- agement establishes organizational objectives, and all who work in the organization strive to achieve them. Management’s work includes providing an organizational context in which direct and support work can be performed effectively, and preparing an organization to deal with threats and opportuni- ties in its external environment. Managers at all levels shape organizational values and cul- ture by their decisions and through leading by example (mod- eling), even though senior managers usually have the clearest and most direct effect. The organization’s overall performance is the best evidence of managers’ efforts. Regardless of hierar- chical level, managers throughout an organization engage in the same basic, generic functions, even though decisions made at senior levels have the most dramatic effect on the organiza- tion (Rakich, Longest, & Darr, 2000). Managers can be de- scribed by the functions they perform, the skills they use, the roles they play, and the competencies they must have to suc- ceed. This emphasizes the process of managing.