Thus, with one major exception
discussed here, the actual roles of biodiversity in promoting human
health and well-being remain largely uncertain. We addressed the
following questions: (1) How important is biodiversity to the
provision of ecosystem services? (2) Is there convincing evidence
that experiencing more natural settings, even briefly or vicariously,
can improve psychological and physical health? (3) Does exposure
to biodiverse surroundings result in measurable health responses?
(4) Can biodiversity provide humans and animals protection
from infectious and/or allergic and inflammatory diseases? (5) Is
there evidence that experiencing coastal nature or marine biodiversity
has health effects? Based on our findings, we suggest that
new research and policy strategies, involving collaboration among
ecological, environmental health, biomedical, and conservation
scientists as well as urban, land and coastal planners, and social
scientists, are needed to make critical progress toward answering
these and related questions. We conclude with ideas for key
components of those strategies and recommendations for a way
forward.