A population health promotion approach works to improve the underlying conditions of people's lives that enable them to be healthy. As well, it aims to reduce inequities in those conditions that place some members of the community at a disadvantage for maintaining optimal health. Population health promotion includes a variety of approaches to reach these goals. Through the proactive identification of risk behaviours and environmental conditions of client and population groups, population health promotion works to prevent problems before they occur and to avoid further problems from occurring after injury or illness is already present. The ideal result is an enhanced sense of health and quality of life for individuals and families in that community.
The North Karelia Project, a community-based health promotion program in Finland to reduce cardiovascular disorders, has demonstrated the potential of effective population health promotion at work. The project has reported both cost-benefit and cost-effective analysis for its successful heart health interventions in 1972 (onset) and again in 1992. After 20 years, the cardiovascular disease mortality rate in men declined by 68%, while coronary heart disease mortality in men declined by 73% (Puska et al. 1998). During the same period, Finland experienced a US$600 million decrease in its overall cardiovascular-related social cost for those aged 35 to 64 years (Puska et al. 1995).
The Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) provides further evidence of effective health promotion at work. The EFNEP has shown that nutrition education programs benefit limited income families by improving their overall diets, resulting in delay or prevention of diet-related chronic diseases. A cost-benefit analysis of the 1996 EFNEP study in the state of Virginia found that for every US$1 invested in the program there was a benefit of US$17.04 in healthcare savings (Rajgopal et al. 2002).
The Higgins Nutrition Intervention Program operating out of the Montreal Diet Dispensary offers a third example of how effective health promotion can result in positive outcomes, in this case reduction of low birth weight rates among low-income women. The program targeted pregnant women who were experiencing poverty, family violence, depression, psychiatric history or health and nutritional problems. Apart from an individual nutritional assessment, women were also provided with vitamins and food supplements of milk and eggs. One study has shown that the overall rate of low birth weight was 50% lower among the intervention infants than among their siblings from a previous pregnancy without any prenatal intervention (Higgins et al. 1989).
The inclusion of a population health promotion perspective within healthcare is consistent with a shift from hospital-based care focused on illness and disability to community-oriented services that focus on the prevention of illness and disability before they have a chance to occur. The field's strong emphasis on ensuring that community members are involved in planning for new or revised services is also part of responsible and accountable healthcare management in today's climate of healthcare reform.
In this process, communities develop a stronger capacity to address the social, economic and environmental conditions affecting their health and well-being, such as poverty, social isolation and crime. As well, working from a population health promotion perspective enables administrators and governments the ability to plan programs and services with a greater confidence that these services are most needed by the people in that region.
The Expanded Chronic Care Model (Expanded CCM)
There is an opportunity to integrate population health promotion into the prevention and management of chronic disease. This integration would broaden the CCM by directing additional efforts to reducing the burden of chronic disease, not just by reducing the impact on those who have a disease but also by supporting people and communities to be healthy. This strategy requires action on the determinants of health as well as delivering high quality healthcare services. Glasgow et al. (2001) suggest that there are numerous advantages to having a single model for the organization of healthcare for both disease prevention and management. The integration of population health promotion into an Expanded Chronic Care Model (Expanded CCM) will address the requirement to develop the Community portion of the CCM and to guide action that would address health determinants.
The Expanded CCM supports the intrinsic role that the social determinants of health play in influencing individual, community and population health. Adopting an Expanded CCM will facilitate a fundamental shift in understanding about how individual client care fits within the concepts of population health. The new configuration (Figure 2) integrating the CCM with population health promotion demonstrates clear associations between the healthcare system and the community. This action-driven model will broaden the focus of practice to work towards health outcomes for individuals, communities and populations.
The Health System and the Community in the Expanded Chronic Care Model
The large inner oval in the original CCM (Figure 1) represents the health system or an individual healthcare organization. The Expanded CCM, however, includes a porous border between the formal health system and the community. This porous border is a graphical representation of the flow of ideas, resources and people between the community and the health system.
A second area of change in the Expanded CCM is the placement of the four areas of focus: self-management support, decision support, delivery system design and information systems. These four circles now straddle the border between the health system and the larger community. To address both the delivery of healthcare services and population health promotion, the activities of these four areas can be integrated within, and have an impact on, both the healthcare organization and the community.
The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion refers to five action areas:
develop personal skills
re-orient health services
build healthy public policy
create supportive environments
strengthen community action.
In merging these five action areas with the CCM, two of the areas of focus are re-named and re-defined, and additional detail is created in the "Community" oval. This integration of population health promotion and clinical treatment also affects the lower half of the model.
Self-Management / Develop Personal Skills
Self-Management / Develop Personal Skills refers to the support of self-management in coping with a disease but also to the development of personal skills for health and wellness. The arena for action in this expanded notion of self-management includes strategies in the community as well as in the health system.
In population health promotion, supporting personal and social development of individuals and groups is done in part by providing information and enhancing life skills. It increases options available for people to exercise more control over their health and their environments. It includes but goes beyond traditional health education messages, such as those dealing with smoking, nutrition and physical activity. While traditional health education programs are important, by themselves these initiatives often have limited impact on health behaviours and/or long-term health status and therefore must be broadened to include consideration of the determinants of health.
The development of smoking cessation and tobacco use prevention programs provides good examples of efforts to develop personal skills among individuals or groups in the community. Smoking cessation advice offered by healthcare professionals is one effective way of encouraging the development and practice of personal skills. Many other cessation and prevention programs work with community, workplace and school-based groups and also involve the development of policies and other supports as a comprehensive strategy. A recent Spanish study has concluded that smoking cessation is highly cost-effective in the reduction of cardiovascular disease prevalence. In that study, the cost per life year gained from smoking cessation programs ranged from $2,600 to $5,700, whereas the costs per life year gained from treatment-based interventions was up to $86,000 (Plans-Rubio 1998).
Delivery System Design / Re-orient Health Services
In population health promotion, re-orienting health services involves encouraging those in the healthcare sector to move beyond the provision of clinical and curative services to an expanded mandate that supports individuals and communities in a more holistic way. Such a change in the system would acknowledge the demonstrated connections between health and broader social, political, economic and physical environmental conditions. It would also facilitate connections among the social, political and medical fields and argue that it is health, and not illness that should underpin healthcare work. This action includes a stronger emphasis on health research. Delivery system design/re-orienting health services to support both healthcare and population health promotion implies a tighter connection with the community where the system redesign activities affect citizen organizations, non-profit groups and the healthcare organization.
The healthcare sector is an essential partner in creating the proper conditions for health in society. Its leadership role in society can be exercised by providing examples of what can be done to achieve a healthy environment, or by acting as an advocate for healthy public policies. If healthcare professionals can be re-oriented to become advocates for health, rather than simply part of the repair service, they can become powerful allies for those seeking to promote health.
Decision
A population health promotion approach works to improve the underlying conditions of people's lives that enable them to be healthy. As well, it aims to reduce inequities in those conditions that place some members of the community at a disadvantage for maintaining optimal health. Population health promotion includes a variety of approaches to reach these goals. Through the proactive identification of risk behaviours and environmental conditions of client and population groups, population health promotion works to prevent problems before they occur and to avoid further problems from occurring after injury or illness is already present. The ideal result is an enhanced sense of health and quality of life for individuals and families in that community.
The North Karelia Project, a community-based health promotion program in Finland to reduce cardiovascular disorders, has demonstrated the potential of effective population health promotion at work. The project has reported both cost-benefit and cost-effective analysis for its successful heart health interventions in 1972 (onset) and again in 1992. After 20 years, the cardiovascular disease mortality rate in men declined by 68%, while coronary heart disease mortality in men declined by 73% (Puska et al. 1998). During the same period, Finland experienced a US$600 million decrease in its overall cardiovascular-related social cost for those aged 35 to 64 years (Puska et al. 1995).
The Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) provides further evidence of effective health promotion at work. The EFNEP has shown that nutrition education programs benefit limited income families by improving their overall diets, resulting in delay or prevention of diet-related chronic diseases. A cost-benefit analysis of the 1996 EFNEP study in the state of Virginia found that for every US$1 invested in the program there was a benefit of US$17.04 in healthcare savings (Rajgopal et al. 2002).
The Higgins Nutrition Intervention Program operating out of the Montreal Diet Dispensary offers a third example of how effective health promotion can result in positive outcomes, in this case reduction of low birth weight rates among low-income women. The program targeted pregnant women who were experiencing poverty, family violence, depression, psychiatric history or health and nutritional problems. Apart from an individual nutritional assessment, women were also provided with vitamins and food supplements of milk and eggs. One study has shown that the overall rate of low birth weight was 50% lower among the intervention infants than among their siblings from a previous pregnancy without any prenatal intervention (Higgins et al. 1989).
The inclusion of a population health promotion perspective within healthcare is consistent with a shift from hospital-based care focused on illness and disability to community-oriented services that focus on the prevention of illness and disability before they have a chance to occur. The field's strong emphasis on ensuring that community members are involved in planning for new or revised services is also part of responsible and accountable healthcare management in today's climate of healthcare reform.
In this process, communities develop a stronger capacity to address the social, economic and environmental conditions affecting their health and well-being, such as poverty, social isolation and crime. As well, working from a population health promotion perspective enables administrators and governments the ability to plan programs and services with a greater confidence that these services are most needed by the people in that region.
The Expanded Chronic Care Model (Expanded CCM)
There is an opportunity to integrate population health promotion into the prevention and management of chronic disease. This integration would broaden the CCM by directing additional efforts to reducing the burden of chronic disease, not just by reducing the impact on those who have a disease but also by supporting people and communities to be healthy. This strategy requires action on the determinants of health as well as delivering high quality healthcare services. Glasgow et al. (2001) suggest that there are numerous advantages to having a single model for the organization of healthcare for both disease prevention and management. The integration of population health promotion into an Expanded Chronic Care Model (Expanded CCM) will address the requirement to develop the Community portion of the CCM and to guide action that would address health determinants.
The Expanded CCM supports the intrinsic role that the social determinants of health play in influencing individual, community and population health. Adopting an Expanded CCM will facilitate a fundamental shift in understanding about how individual client care fits within the concepts of population health. The new configuration (Figure 2) integrating the CCM with population health promotion demonstrates clear associations between the healthcare system and the community. This action-driven model will broaden the focus of practice to work towards health outcomes for individuals, communities and populations.
The Health System and the Community in the Expanded Chronic Care Model
The large inner oval in the original CCM (Figure 1) represents the health system or an individual healthcare organization. The Expanded CCM, however, includes a porous border between the formal health system and the community. This porous border is a graphical representation of the flow of ideas, resources and people between the community and the health system.
A second area of change in the Expanded CCM is the placement of the four areas of focus: self-management support, decision support, delivery system design and information systems. These four circles now straddle the border between the health system and the larger community. To address both the delivery of healthcare services and population health promotion, the activities of these four areas can be integrated within, and have an impact on, both the healthcare organization and the community.
The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion refers to five action areas:
develop personal skills
re-orient health services
build healthy public policy
create supportive environments
strengthen community action.
In merging these five action areas with the CCM, two of the areas of focus are re-named and re-defined, and additional detail is created in the "Community" oval. This integration of population health promotion and clinical treatment also affects the lower half of the model.
Self-Management / Develop Personal Skills
Self-Management / Develop Personal Skills refers to the support of self-management in coping with a disease but also to the development of personal skills for health and wellness. The arena for action in this expanded notion of self-management includes strategies in the community as well as in the health system.
In population health promotion, supporting personal and social development of individuals and groups is done in part by providing information and enhancing life skills. It increases options available for people to exercise more control over their health and their environments. It includes but goes beyond traditional health education messages, such as those dealing with smoking, nutrition and physical activity. While traditional health education programs are important, by themselves these initiatives often have limited impact on health behaviours and/or long-term health status and therefore must be broadened to include consideration of the determinants of health.
The development of smoking cessation and tobacco use prevention programs provides good examples of efforts to develop personal skills among individuals or groups in the community. Smoking cessation advice offered by healthcare professionals is one effective way of encouraging the development and practice of personal skills. Many other cessation and prevention programs work with community, workplace and school-based groups and also involve the development of policies and other supports as a comprehensive strategy. A recent Spanish study has concluded that smoking cessation is highly cost-effective in the reduction of cardiovascular disease prevalence. In that study, the cost per life year gained from smoking cessation programs ranged from $2,600 to $5,700, whereas the costs per life year gained from treatment-based interventions was up to $86,000 (Plans-Rubio 1998).
Delivery System Design / Re-orient Health Services
In population health promotion, re-orienting health services involves encouraging those in the healthcare sector to move beyond the provision of clinical and curative services to an expanded mandate that supports individuals and communities in a more holistic way. Such a change in the system would acknowledge the demonstrated connections between health and broader social, political, economic and physical environmental conditions. It would also facilitate connections among the social, political and medical fields and argue that it is health, and not illness that should underpin healthcare work. This action includes a stronger emphasis on health research. Delivery system design/re-orienting health services to support both healthcare and population health promotion implies a tighter connection with the community where the system redesign activities affect citizen organizations, non-profit groups and the healthcare organization.
The healthcare sector is an essential partner in creating the proper conditions for health in society. Its leadership role in society can be exercised by providing examples of what can be done to achieve a healthy environment, or by acting as an advocate for healthy public policies. If healthcare professionals can be re-oriented to become advocates for health, rather than simply part of the repair service, they can become powerful allies for those seeking to promote health.
Decision
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