13.2 A TRANSATLANTIC LENS
The case study cities Berlin and Seattle were chosen as a lens through which to examine differences in implementation of these concepts between North America and Europe. Both are rich in green space planning histories, yet they have contrasting planning cultures, urbanization dynamics, and challenges.
Berlin represents the German planning tradition with a strong emphasis on formal land use planning based on federal law. Although the term “Green Infrastructure Plan” has not yet been used in Germany for green systems on a city or regional scale to our knowledge, a lot of larger cities have recently developed or updated plans for urban green (e.g., the GrünGürtel Frankfurt, Grünes Netz Hamburg). A few examples exist of municipal ecosystem service assessments in Germany, but attention as yet has mainly been on a national scale through the TEEB initiative. Berlin makes an interesting case study as it is increasingly using informal strategic and visionary approaches due to criticism of the effectiveness of formal planning.
Seattle serves as an example from the United States, one of the few countries where numerous “Green Infrastructure Plans” have been published for cities, city regions, or larger areas (e.g., Philadelphia, Kansas City Metro, State of Maryland) and where municipal ecosystem service assessments are, although in their infancy, not uncommon among larger and more progressive cities. Seattle is known for innovative planning approaches and strong emphasis on stakeholder and community involvement (Dooling et al. 2006; Pauleit et al. 2011).
13.2.1 A A Lens on Berlin
Urban and green structure planning on a city scale in Berlin started around the turn of the 20th century after a phase of rapid population growth. In the following decades, city planning and green planning were established as professions, and resulting plans and projects shaped the current green structure of Berlin (Schindler 1972). Environmental and green structure planning increased in the 1980s with wider environmental consciousness. Shortly after German reunification, city and landscape planning for a united Berlin were developed (SenStadt UM n.d.). The almost century-old idea of a citywide green space network was refreshed, and a “chain” of eight regional parks was established in 1998 to protect the suburban landscape against sprawl. Unlike other parts of former Eastern Germany, whose population declined after reunification, Berlin’s metropolitan area stayed relatively stable throughout the 1990s at close to six million people (SenStadt UD and MIR 2009).