On an EU level, congestion is the external transport effect that costs the most for
society. Road congestion costs approximately 1% of the GNP in the EU (European
Commission, 2001). This corresponds to 123 billion euros in 2007, approximately
the same size as the total EU budget (European Commission, 2009). Road hauliers
both contribute to and suffer fromthis problem. Froma more national perspective,
fuel economy standards, vehicle emission standards and fuel quality standards
have been the main regulatory measures taken by governments (Timilsina &
Dulal, 2009).