CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Dissimilar to the scholasticism of higher education, corporate educators rarely publish books or theoretical works. The scant materials written from corporate learning resource centers often appear in business journalร or trade magazines. Internal documents abound yet are frequently maintained and shared only within organizations. Most are pragmatic and specific in nature. The literature discussed in this review has been organized into paralleling sections, corresponding to the respective purposes of this study.
Background and Status
The background or history of corporate learning resource centers has, in fact, led to their current status. According to Patten (1993/1994), "Unprecedented problems have given way to unprecedented solutions" (p. 411). While efforts heretofore have been unparalleled, some researchers may remember the corporate schools of the past. These have served as the foundation for the extensive efforts that America is now observing in corporate education. Patten wrote, "Old-time personnel managers may perhaps recall the Henry Ford Trade School, National Cash Register Training School, Chrysler Institute, and the Cincinnati Milling Machine Apprentice School, to mention a few exemplars of industrial-controlled schools of the past" (p. 419). Launched ๒ the early 1950s and reputed to be the first corporate university, the General Electric Management
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Development Institute operated much like a "boot camp," where employees spent an entire month away from family and friends, living with coworkers (Meister, 1994).
During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, corporate classrooms emerged in both small and large companies. These educational institutions within corporations spread across the บฌํted States and became known as corporate universities, institutes, or colleges, with the most sophisticated programs in existing companies with large investments ๒ technology (Meister, 1994). It is now estimated that "at least 400 businesses presently include a building or campus labeled college, university, institute, or education center" (Eurich,
1985, p. 48).
Employers ๒ บ. ร. corporations have long seen a decline in the basic skill level of those entering the workforce and are exerting great efforts to assist ๒ the crisis affecting job readiness in a changing workplace. According to Foegen (1991), "Acting largely in self-defense, the private sector has moved considerably toward corporate schools. The American Society for Training and Development says that, in two years, 93% of the largest บ.ร. firms will be teaching employees basic work skills" (p. 55). For example, Motorola devotes almost 10% of its total training budget to basic skills training (Meister, 1994). In 1991, the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) estimated that, as a group, บ.ร. employers spent $300 million on basic skills training, up from zero 10 years ago.
In 1987, Hofstra University researchers surveyed 558 corporations, identifying 26 industrial and service corporations with learning resource centers (Green & Lazarus,
1987). General Electric began the trend, reporting the first learning center, established in 1956. Palmer (1986) reviewed materials catalogued by the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC):
The literature on educational technology often centers on the role of learning laboratories and learning resource centers (LRCs) ๒ housing and making
available nonprint media for รณdent use There is every indication, then, that
the functions of the library and the learning laboratory are being combined in LRC. (pp. 83-94)
Bianca Arnold, United Automobile Workers Education and Training Coordinator, has written, '"Both the union and the company felt that for General Motors to be more competitive—and for its employees to understand new technologies—we needed to focus more on education'" (Gunsch, 1993, p. 43). In order to accomplish this corporate educational goal, 36 General Motors plants nationwide have developed skill centers at all plants.
Within higher education, many learning resource centers have been designed for a specific sponsorship or discipline, such as science, English, mathematics, or other learning resource centers (Anderson, 1987; Avery 1985; Barker, 1986; Barr, 1987; DePaor, 1986; Duhrkopf, 1988; Goodrich, 1986; Gooikasian, 1988; Mueller & Marlies, 1989). Corporate learning resource centers reflect the characteristics of a specifically sponsored learning resource center, largely due to the variety of goods and services provided. For example, corporate learning resource centers may specialize in computers, automobiles, petroleum, or other specialty areas. General Telephone and Electronics (GTE), the largest local telephone company in America, with over 100,000 employees, and a company that has won the National Malcolm Baldndge Quality Award, has many specialized data and telecommunications courses (ร. Sherlund, personal communication, March 25, 1996). It would be expected that a company's strategic mission or vision would be specifically reflected in its learning resource center course offerings.
Diversification of skills needed in ฟ! companies are reflected in learning resource center courseware. Among these are basic common skills of typing, reading, speaking, and management. International Business Machines (IBM), which has been among the 25 most profitable บ.ร. industrial corporations for many years, GTE, Navistar, New York Life, and numerous other large companies maintain a diverse range of educational opportunities within their learning resource centers (Miller, 1989; Pak& Solo, 1990; ร. Sherlund, persond communication, March 25, 1996). The American Express Learning Resource Center in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, offers courses that include basic-level work as well as advanced-level mater^ ร (Abbott & Dahmus, 1992).
A modem corporate learning resource center is a physicd space, usually on company premises. It is often housed ๒ a classroom conference room and is utilized for the formal development of employees at many different organizational levels (Green & Lazarus, 1987). Readily available because of the downsizing taking place in corporate America, space is converted easily, utilizing existing facilities and equipment with little or no cost for new construction or the purchase of equipment and furniture (Green &
Lazarus, 1987). E. Mims, the Learning Center Administrator for IBM in Dallas, Texas, claimed that IBM had 162 learning or training centers of an an^gamated nature. Mims ฟรo mentioned that IBM's learning resource centers play an integral and required part of
the total training each employee receives (E. Mims, personal communication, April 23, 1990). Additionally, IBM has developed a refined approach to skills development within its organization. James (1995) noted that a detailed curriculum for every major job category is a feature of this flexible program of adaptation to the needs of employees and the company. Miller (1989) stated this of a major insurance and financial service company: To serve its 1,000 MIS, 4,800 business and 4,800 field employees who may need technical training, New York Life has devoted six rooms and a full-time administrator to the learning center. The learning center consists of a reception area, two classrooms, a conference room, a reference library and a self-study room. (p. 11)
Organization and Personnel
Organizationally, corporate learning resource centers have a great impact on what a learning resource center actually becomes. Adding permanent full-time training directors, learning resource center administrators, or program coordinators to the payroll sometimes becomes necessary. A learning resource center program requires orchestration by a human resources professional able to perform many functions as a training facilitator (Patten, 1993). Aetna Institute has a full-time teaching staff of 60, including several former college professors, who teach 20 or more classes for 200 to 400 students each day (Durity, 1991). Outside consultants, teachers, university professors, or resource people within the corporation are often the pioneers in the establishment of learning resource centers (Green & Lazarus, 1987). Green and Lazarus (1987) note:
The staffing of courses, sessions, seminars, or workshops would thus take advantage of insiders and outsiders, drawing on their combined skills to attain learning objectives. There is no buildup of a permanent staff and training and development bureaucracy. Costs are controlled, (p. 58)
For example, of the 1,200 people involved in training and education at Motorola University, only 110 are full-time (Haas et ฟ., 1993). Larger companies are likely to use a variety of consultants and outside training providers, whereas many manufacturing firms access community colleges, technic and vocationd schools, and 4-year colleges and universities (Price & Waterhouse, 1994).
Types and Amount of Alternate Delivery The types and amount of ฟtemate delivery or the equipment utilized to create this learning environment is another shaping factor. Course offerings are adjusted on an ongoing basis to accommodate changing business needs and are delivered via mainframe and microcomputer. These courses are supplemented with texts, videotapes, and reference rnarn^ร. Students work in the learning resource center at their own pace on mater^ร that have been chosen to meet their น่ฟ่ท่ฬนฟ needs (Abbott &Dahmus, 1992). The authors wrote concerning learning resource centers at General Electric: "The centre (sic] uses self- นนแนฬฬทฟ tapes to train people in the skills which are required for setup, maintenance and troubleshooting" (Abbott & Dahmus, 1992, p. 51).
Arnett, an education consulting service executive with Skill Dynamics, an IBM company, described a learning environment where "'modular, multi-sensory instructional modules will be distributed on demand to employees"' (Meister, 1