collaboration with the allies in 1942 in north Africa
American’s formal entry into World War II in December 1941 significantly changed the course of the war as it infused American strategy and resources into the conflict. The British and American approaches as to how to prosecute the war in Europe were divergent after the Americans entered the war in 1941. The British were essentially designing a strategic plan that would rely on blockade, bombing, subversive activities, and propaganda to weaken the will and ability of Germany to resist. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was skeptical of confronting the German land forces head on believing that committing vast armies of infantry and armor to the continent like was done in World War I would be a mistake. Instead, he proposed a strategy that would emphasize mobile, hard-hitting armored forces operating on the periphery of German-controlled territory rather than a large scale ground action against the German war machine on the continent. Therefore, Churchill believed that the best approach was to wage war on the continent with a peripheral strategy. Historian Dr. Maurice Matloff wrote: “the Mediterranean or ‘soft underbelly’ part of the peripheral thesis has received great attention in the post war debate…from the beginning the British leadership envisaged a cross-Channel operation in force only as the last blow against a Germany already in the process of collapse.”[7]
The Americans on the other hand believed that large-scale land operations would be needed to defeat Germany. Mass concentration was the core of American strategy. Matloff wrote: “in the summer of 1941 the [American] army’s strategic planners concluded that sooner or later ‘we must prepare to fight Germany by actually coming to grips with and defeating her ground forces and definitely breaking her will to combat.”[8]
These two opposing strategic views of how to best prosecute the war in Europe against Germany and the Axis powers were reflected in 1942 in the debate over Operation Bolero vis-à-vis Operation Torch. American Admiral Harold R. Stark had as early as November 1940 predicted that it would take large scale land operations to defeat Nazi Germany and in the summer of 1941 the army’s strategic planners concluded that in the end the Allies would have to defeat Germany by defeating her ground forces.
After Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Secretary of War Stimson, General Marshal and American war planners in the United States were concerned with American assets becoming too widely disbursed and as a result devised Operation Bolero. The plan was designed to assemble troops and supplies in England for a major cross-Channel invasion as early as the spring of 1943. According to Matloff, the British initially approved Bolero in principle in April 1942 but that the agreement lasted less than three months.[9]
The British strategic planners were concerned that a major cross-Channel offensive at this juncture would be premature prompting Churchill to go to Washington for a strategy meeting and propose a North African operation instead of Bolero. This new British proposal so frustrated the American war planners that they threatened to concentrate on the Pacific theater instead of Europe, however, President Roosevelt overruled them. Roosevelt believed that since the British were not in favor of a cross-Channel operation in 1942 that a thrust into North Africa would be a viable alternative. Operation Torch would place American ground forces against the Germans and a successful operation in North Africa would help secure vital Mediterranean Sea lanes and potentially secure a staging point for an Allied invasion into southern Europe. Additionally, resources existed for Operation Torch where they were suspect for a cross-Channel operation in 1942.[10]
Substantial evidence exists that a significant number of high ranking Vichy military officials would be involved in the planning of Operation Torch and that Vichy complicity with the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) is additional evidence of high ranking Vichy Officials defying Pétain and the armistice agreement with Germany.
Operation Torch began in the early morning hours of November 8, 1942 when Allied troops, mostly American, landed ashore at various points in Vichy French-controlled Morocco and Algeria marking America’s first major offensive in World War II. Historian David A. Walker wrote: “simultaneously, pro-Allied guerrilla fighters organized by General William J. (‘Wild Bill’) Donovan’s recently formed Office of Strategic Services (OSS) sprang into action to assist in the invading forces.”[11] For the previous three months, these guerrilla fighters had been recruited and trained by OSS agents stationed in Vichy French North Africa. This tactic by American forces represented a new approach or dimension to military operations in the field during World War II. Additionally, OSS agents were tasked with assessing enemy motivation and the conducting of clandestine negotiations designed to create pro-Allied factions in either enemy or neutral countries.[12] It is important to note the early collaboration between American and Vichy French authorities in North Africa began in the form of the vice-counsels organization which was the precursor of the OSS which formed in June 1942 and its predecessor organization, the Office of the Coordinator of Information (COI), in July 1941. In May, 1941 the vice-consuls organization was established after the Murphy-Weygand economic agreement of March 10, 1941. This agreement allowed for certain American goods to be imported into French Northwest Africa even though the British had a blockade of the area in effect. In return, the Americans would be allowed by Vichy French authorities to maintain American observers in Vichy controlled North Africa to monitor the destination of the imported goods and ensure that they did not fall into the hands of Axis powers.[13]To further accentuate the Vichy American collaboration Dr. Walker wrote: “Furthermore, OSS maintained links with disaffected officers of the Vichy French army of North Africa, and it was on the basis of evidence supplied from this source that OSS agents claimed that the resistance of the Vichy French to a primarily American invasion of North Africa would be minimal.”[14] It was reported that one of the major tasks entrusted to the OSS was the recruitment of the distinguished French General Henri Giraud to the Allied cause. Many historians have noted that, for a long period of time during the planning of Operation Torch, General Eisenhower favored General Giraud over Admiral Darlan to head Vichy French forces during the North African operation. However, other historians dispute this as Douglas Porch points out that Eisenhower believed General Giraud was “reactionary, old-fashioned and cannot be persuaded to modernize…he has no, repeat no, political acumen whatsoever.”[15]A possible reason for the OSS directive on the recruitment of Giraud was found in an incoming message R-2014 from Headquarters ETOUSA on October 16, 1942 addressed for the eyes of General Eisenhower only in paragraph of that communication:
[Eisenhower was] to transmit this information to General Giraud immediately. General Mast stated that General Giraud desires that he be dealt with instead of Darlan, who he feels cannot be trusted, but is merely desirous of climbing on the band wagon. A request was made for an expression of unity of French forces (army and navy), of whom Darlan is Commander-in-Chief. The French Fleet is extremely important in that the admiral controls ports and coastal batteries in French North Africa. Mast stated that the army is loyal to and will be commanded by Giraud instead of Darlan; also, that the navy in French North Africa should go along with the army. I urge that the success of the operation depends upon the working of the French forces with us.[16]
This message from General Marshal at Headquarters ETOUSA to General Eisenhower on October 16, 1942 provides a portion of the evidence why some historians believe that General Eisenhower preferred Vichy General Giraud over Admiral Darlan to head Vichy French troops during the North African operation. General Mast, who commanded a Vichy French army division in Casablanca, Morocco during this period, was one of America’s chief contacts in North Africa and a strong advocate of General Giraud leading French troops during the invasion.
Historian Dr. Arthur Funk has noted, however, that three weeks prior to the commencement of Operation Torch an agreement had been consummated in a London meeting by General Eisenhower, General Clark, Churchill, Eden, and the British Chief of Staff General Sir Allen Brooke and that Roosevelt had been kept informed. Funk wrote: “these deliberations had led to a qualified acceptance of Darlan (he was then considered less useful than a rival candidate, General Henri Giraud) as a possible replacement for Clark as Eisenhower’s deputy.”[17]
The news that Admiral Darlan would lead Vichy troops in North Africa brought indignant protest in the American and British press because he was perceived as a Nazi collaborator and had demonstrated his anti-Semitism as well as his Anglophobia. Additionally, the British had backed and given refuge to Free French leader General Charles de Gaulle, who considered the Allies reported deal with Darlan an ill-considered affront. The editorials in both the British and the American press asked the same basic question: “how could American commanders, General Dwight Eisenhower and his deputy General Mark Clark have been so short-sighted or ignorant that they could improvise a compact with a notorious double-dealer, a fascist and a quisling, in order to obtain uncertain temporary advantage?”[18]
Evidence based on documents found in General Mark Clark’s letters show a significant number of high ranking Vichy French officials like
ความร่วมมือกับพันธมิตรในปี 1942 ในแอฟริกาเหนือรายการอย่างเป็นทางการของสหรัฐอเมริกาในสงครามโลกครั้งที่สองธันวาคม 1941 เปลี่ยนหลักสูตรของสงครามเป็นเรื่องผสมผสานกลยุทธ์อเมริกันและทรัพยากรเป็นความขัดแย้งอย่างมีนัยสำคัญ แนวทางอังกฤษ และอเมริกันเป็นวิธีการดำเนินคดีกับสงครามในยุโรปมีขันติธรรมหลังจากชาวอเมริกันป้อนสงคราม 1941 อังกฤษหลักได้ออกแบบแผนเชิงกลยุทธ์ที่จะใช้ปิดล้อม ทิ้งระเบิด กิจกรรม subversive และโฆษณาชวนเชื่อจะอ่อนตัวลงจะและความสามารถของเยอรมนีเพื่อต่อต้าน นายกรัฐมนตรีอังกฤษวินสตันเคิร์ดโซว์ถูกสงสัยของเยอรมันเผชิญแผ่นดินกองใหญ่บนเชื่อว่า ยอมรับกองทัพใหญ่ของชุดเกราะและทหารราบไปทวีปเช่นที่ทำในสงครามโลกจะผิดพลาด แทน เขาเสนอกลยุทธ์ที่จะเน้นมือถือ hard-hitting เกราะกองกำลังทำงานบนยสปริงของเยอรมันควบคุมอาณาเขตมากกว่าการกระทำพื้นดินขนาดใหญ่กับเครื่องจักรสงครามเยอรมันบนทวีป ดังนั้น เคิร์ดโซว์เชื่อว่า วิธีที่ดีที่สุดคือ สงครามในทวีปที่มีกลยุทธ์การต่อพ่วง นักประวัติศาสตร์ดร.มอริ Matloff เขียน: "เมดิเตอร์เรเนียน หรือ 'นุ่ม underbelly' ส่วนหนึ่งของวิทยานิพนธ์ต่อพ่วงได้รับความสนใจมากในการประกาศสงครามอภิปราย...ตั้งแต่เริ่มต้น นำอังกฤษ envisaged ดำเนินข้ามช่องแรงเท่าระเบิดล่าสุดกับเยอรมนีแล้วกำลังยุบ" [7]ชาวอเมริกันคงเชื่อว่า แผ่นดินใหญ่การดำเนินงานจะต้องพ่ายแพ้เยอรมนี ความเข้มข้นโดยรวมหลักของกลยุทธ์อเมริกันได้ Matloff เขียน: "ในฤดูร้อนค.ศ. 1941 วางแผนเชิงกลยุทธ์ของกองทัพบก [อเมริกัน] สรุปที่ช้า ' เราต้องเตรียมต่อสู้เยอรมนี โดยมาจริง กับ และเอาชนะกองกำลังภาคพื้นดินของเธอ และแน่นอนการตัดเธอจะต่อสู้" [8]สงครามในยุโรปกับเยอรมนีดำเนินคดีสองมุมมองเชิงกลยุทธ์วิธีการส่วนฝ่ายตรงข้าม และแกนอำนาจถูกสะท้อนออกมาในปี 1942 ในการอภิปรายมากกว่า vis-เซ็ต-vis เสื้อชนิดหนึ่งการดำเนินงานปฏิบัติการคบเพลิง อเมริกันแอดฮาโรลด์ R. โดยสิ้นเชิงเป็นต้นที่ ๒๔๘๓ พฤศจิกายนทำนายว่า มันจะใช้เวลาขนาดใหญ่ที่ดินดำเนินความพ่ายแพ้ของนาซีเยอรมนี และในฤดูร้อนค.ศ. 1941 วางแผนเชิงกลยุทธ์ของกองทัพบกสรุปว่า ในสุดพันธมิตรจะต้องพ่ายแพ้เยอรมนี โดยการเอาชนะของเธอเราบังคับได้หลังจากในเดือน 1941 ธันวาคมเพิร์ลฮาร์เบอร์ เลขานุการ Stimson สงคราม จอม พลทั่วไป และการวางแผนสงครามอเมริกันในสหรัฐอเมริกาเกี่ยวข้องกับสินทรัพย์อเมริกันเป็นเบิกเกินไปอย่างกว้างขวางและกำหนดเป็นผลการดำเนินงานเสื้อชนิดหนึ่ง แผนถูกออกแบบมาเพื่อรวบรวมกำลังพลและอุปกรณ์ในอังกฤษที่สำคัญข้ามช่องบุกรุกก่อนเป็นฤดูใบไม้ผลิของ 1943 ตาม Matloff อังกฤษเริ่มอนุมัติเสื้อชนิดหนึ่งในหลักการในเดือนเมษายนปี 1942 แต่ว่าตกลงจะกินเวลาน้อยกว่าสามเดือน [9]วางแผนเชิงกลยุทธ์ที่อังกฤษมีความกังวลว่า รุกข้ามช่องหลักที่ juncture นี้จะก่อนกำหนดเพื่อให้เคิร์ดโซว์ไปวอชิงตันประชุมกลยุทธ์ และเสนอการดำเนินงานที่แอฟริกาเหนือแทนเสื้อชนิดหนึ่ง ข้อเสนอนี้อังกฤษใหม่ผิดหวังดังนั้นวางแผนสงครามอเมริกันที่พวกเขาถูกเน้นโรงละครแปซิฟิกแทนยุโรป ไร ประธานาธิบดีรูสเวลต์แทนพวกเขา รูสเวลท์เชื่อว่าเนื่องจากอังกฤษไม่สามารถข้ามช่องดำเนินการในปี 1942 ว่า กระตุกในแอฟริกาเหนือจะเป็นทางเลือกที่ทำงานได้ ปฏิบัติการคบเพลิงจะทำอเมริกันกองกับเยอรมัน และการดำเนินงานที่ประสบความสำเร็จในแอฟริกาเหนือจะช่วยทางน่านน้ำเมดิเตอร์เรเนียนที่สำคัญ และอาจปลอดภัยจุดเตรียมสำหรับการบุกรุกที่ฝ่ายสัมพันธมิตรในยุโรปใต้ นอกจากนี้ ทรัพยากรอยู่ในปฏิบัติการคบเพลิงที่พวกเขาสงสัยในการดำเนินการข้ามช่องในปี 1942 [10]พบหลักฐานมีอยู่ว่าจำนวนสูงอันดับกาดเจ้าหน้าที่ทหารจะเกี่ยวข้องในการวางแผนปฏิบัติการคบเพลิงและเข้าไปที่กาดกับอเมริกา Office ของกลยุทธ์บริการ (OSS) สำคัญหลักฐานเพิ่มเติมเจ้าหน้าที่กาดอันดับสูง defying Pétain และข้อตกลงการสงบศึกกับเยอรมนีOperation Torch began in the early morning hours of November 8, 1942 when Allied troops, mostly American, landed ashore at various points in Vichy French-controlled Morocco and Algeria marking America’s first major offensive in World War II. Historian David A. Walker wrote: “simultaneously, pro-Allied guerrilla fighters organized by General William J. (‘Wild Bill’) Donovan’s recently formed Office of Strategic Services (OSS) sprang into action to assist in the invading forces.”[11] For the previous three months, these guerrilla fighters had been recruited and trained by OSS agents stationed in Vichy French North Africa. This tactic by American forces represented a new approach or dimension to military operations in the field during World War II. Additionally, OSS agents were tasked with assessing enemy motivation and the conducting of clandestine negotiations designed to create pro-Allied factions in either enemy or neutral countries.[12] It is important to note the early collaboration between American and Vichy French authorities in North Africa began in the form of the vice-counsels organization which was the precursor of the OSS which formed in June 1942 and its predecessor organization, the Office of the Coordinator of Information (COI), in July 1941. In May, 1941 the vice-consuls organization was established after the Murphy-Weygand economic agreement of March 10, 1941. This agreement allowed for certain American goods to be imported into French Northwest Africa even though the British had a blockade of the area in effect. In return, the Americans would be allowed by Vichy French authorities to maintain American observers in Vichy controlled North Africa to monitor the destination of the imported goods and ensure that they did not fall into the hands of Axis powers.[13]To further accentuate the Vichy American collaboration Dr. Walker wrote: “Furthermore, OSS maintained links with disaffected officers of the Vichy French army of North Africa, and it was on the basis of evidence supplied from this source that OSS agents claimed that the resistance of the Vichy French to a primarily American invasion of North Africa would be minimal.”[14] It was reported that one of the major tasks entrusted to the OSS was the recruitment of the distinguished French General Henri Giraud to the Allied cause. Many historians have noted that, for a long period of time during the planning of Operation Torch, General Eisenhower favored General Giraud over Admiral Darlan to head Vichy French forces during the North African operation. However, other historians dispute this as Douglas Porch points out that Eisenhower believed General Giraud was “reactionary, old-fashioned and cannot be persuaded to modernize…he has no, repeat no, political acumen whatsoever.”[15]A possible reason for the OSS directive on the recruitment of Giraud was found in an incoming message R-2014 from Headquarters ETOUSA on October 16, 1942 addressed for the eyes of General Eisenhower only in paragraph of that communication:[Eisenhower was] to transmit this information to General Giraud immediately. General Mast stated that General Giraud desires that he be dealt with instead of Darlan, who he feels cannot be trusted, but is merely desirous of climbing on the band wagon. A request was made for an expression of unity of French forces (army and navy), of whom Darlan is Commander-in-Chief. The French Fleet is extremely important in that the admiral controls ports and coastal batteries in French North Africa. Mast stated that the army is loyal to and will be commanded by Giraud instead of Darlan; also, that the navy in French North Africa should go along with the army. I urge that the success of the operation depends upon the working of the French forces with us.[16]This message from General Marshal at Headquarters ETOUSA to General Eisenhower on October 16, 1942 provides a portion of the evidence why some historians believe that General Eisenhower preferred Vichy General Giraud over Admiral Darlan to head Vichy French troops during the North African operation. General Mast, who commanded a Vichy French army division in Casablanca, Morocco during this period, was one of America’s chief contacts in North Africa and a strong advocate of General Giraud leading French troops during the invasion.Historian Dr. Arthur Funk has noted, however, that three weeks prior to the commencement of Operation Torch an agreement had been consummated in a London meeting by General Eisenhower, General Clark, Churchill, Eden, and the British Chief of Staff General Sir Allen Brooke and that Roosevelt had been kept informed. Funk wrote: “these deliberations had led to a qualified acceptance of Darlan (he was then considered less useful than a rival candidate, General Henri Giraud) as a possible replacement for Clark as Eisenhower’s deputy.”[17]The news that Admiral Darlan would lead Vichy troops in North Africa brought indignant protest in the American and British press because he was perceived as a Nazi collaborator and had demonstrated his anti-Semitism as well as his Anglophobia. Additionally, the British had backed and given refuge to Free French leader General Charles de Gaulle, who considered the Allies reported deal with Darlan an ill-considered affront. The editorials in both the British and the American press asked the same basic question: “how could American commanders, General Dwight Eisenhower and his deputy General Mark Clark have been so short-sighted or ignorant that they could improvise a compact with a notorious double-dealer, a fascist and a quisling, in order to obtain uncertain temporary advantage?”[18]Evidence based on documents found in General Mark Clark’s letters show a significant number of high ranking Vichy French officials like
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
